Equal Access Public Media Style Guide
Guide
Resources
Introduction: About the EAPM Style Guide
This style guide was built to maintain consistency across EAPM products. It was also built to bring accessibility to our written and spoken language.
At EAPM, we will adhere to a written and spoken style across our products that aims to be:
- Clear;
- Concise;
- Accurate;
- And understandable.
Because the average American has reached a reading level no higher than 6th grade, vocabulary and critical thinking skills based on complex information are often also not much higher than the 6th-to-8th grade level. It is therefore important that news information, whether written or spoken, be presented at that reading, vocabulary, and critical thinking level.
Our exception to this rule comes with our Easy English sections, which should never be presented above a 3rd grade reading, writing, or critical thinking level.
This style guide is built with the idea that we will not shy away from presenting complex or difficult information or concepts; rather we will explain them. We see our process as educative and informative while presenting harder information in the news.
We hope this guide helps you become a more accessible journalist.
Submit an item to the style guide
If you’d like to submit an item to the style guide, use the form below. Tell us the entry you would like to see in the style guide. Also tell us why you would like to see it in the style guide and a bit about the entry such as, a definition or suggested style.
A
a-
A prefix meaning “not, without, lack of.” Do not use a hyphen after attaching the prefix.
a, an
The articles “a” and “an” are not interchangeable.
“A” is used before words beginning with consonant sounds.
- a historic event (historic has a hard h sound)
- a one-time payment (one has a hard w sound)
- a United Airlines pilot (United has a hard y sound)
- a horror movie (horror has a hard h sound)
- a xylophone player (xylophone has a z sound)
“An” is used before words with vowel sounds or soft/silent h sounds).
- an x-ray technician (x-ray is said with a soft e like “ex”)
- an emergency measure (emergency has an e sound)
- an honorary degree (honorary has a soft/silent h sound)
- an NAACP attorney (NAACP begins with N, pronounced “en” and begins with an e sound)
- an 18-year-old (18 begins with a long “a” sound ate)
- an apple pie (apple begins with a short “a” sound ant)
- an Ypsilanti business (Ypsilanti begins with a short “i” sound like igloo)
abbreviations
Also see acronyms.
Avoid abbreviations, when possible, with a few rare exceptions.
When abbreviating titles before titles before names (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Mx., Rep., Rev., Lt., etc.), dates, addresses, state names, etc., refer to AP guidance.
ableism
Noun. Discrimination, both personal and structural, based on bias against disability. As an adjective: ableist. as in “ableist comments” or “ableist actions.”
When discussing discrimination such as ableism, racism, etc., it’s important to remember that there is both structural and individual discrimination, and these biases can be both implicit and explicit. It is also up to the community affected to decide what is and is not discrimination – though even then a community may not agree. It is also important to remember biases and discriminations intersect.
Avoid using as a pejorative, “he, she, they is or are ableists,” unless in a direct quote.
abnormal
Describes scientific, medical, statistical, environmental or situational anomalies.
As a term, avoid using to describe a person, disease, behavior or condition. Likewise, avoid comparing a person with a disease, behavior or condition to a perceived “normal.”
abortion
Medically speaking, abortion is a broad term that means the termination of a pregnancy before fetal viability. It includes elective abortion, therapeutic abortion (termination of pregnancy due to fetal abnormality, fetal illness, or health/life of the mother), and spontaneous abortion (also called miscarriage). Abortion also includes removal of ectopic pregnancies.
Legally speaking, abortion is defined and regulated differently by each state and territory in the U.S. Some states restrict elective abortions with attempted carve outs for therapeutic abortions; other states restrict all types of elective and therapeutic abortions; some states allow all types of abortions; some states allow most abortions up to a certain number of weeks. The variation has swept up women who have both spontaneous abortions and need assistance removing the remaining products of conception; women whose lives are endangered by their pregnancies; and women who have ectopic pregnancies.
For people who oppose rights to elective and therapeutic abortions, the correct term/phrase is “anti-abortion rights.” Examples:
- The anti-abortion rights lobby is pressing the Arizona Republicans to vote against repealing the Civil War era law.
- The anti-abortion rights protesters attended the annual Right to Life March in Washington D.C.
For people who support rights to elective and therapeutic abortions, the correct term/phrase is “pro-abortion rights.” Examples:
- The pro-abortion rights protesters stood silently as anti-abortion rights counter-protesters hurled insults at them.
- The pro-abortion rights group gathered signatures to support the ballot amendment at the farmer’s market Saturday.
absolutism
A political theory that absolute power or the means of government should be vested in one person, an absolute rule or authority. See authoritarianism.
accessible education, accessible learning
Broad terms that describe any adaptive or inclusive educational initiative or environment for disabled people. This can include university adaptive housing or disability services; private adaptive tutoring; individual self-directed learning or educational programs; high-tech or low-tech individualized tools; IDEA-defined special education programs; private school programs; or any other way a learning environment is adapted for a disabled person.
Unless specifically discussing IDEA-defined special education, EAPM will use the broad terms accessible education and accessible learning.
See also IDEA and special education.
accessibility
Describes the broad concept of making environments, spaces, products, technologies, and services available to disabled people. This may be through universal design, through removal of barriers, through adaptive technology or equipment, or any the above.
acronyms
Also see abbreviations.
A word formed from the first letter or letters of a series of words. Examples: SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) or NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
In most instances of acronyms, spell out the phrase of words first and put the after in parentheses on first use. Use the acronym on all subsequent uses. If the acronym is most commonly recognized (such as NASA, SCUBA, Navy SEALS, SWAT, CAPTCHA), put the acronym first and then spell out the phrase of words in parentheses on first reference. In rare instances, only the acronym is necessary (for example, the company name YAHOO! (which started as an acronym) or TED Talks.
In instances of acronyms for slang or shorthand (BRB, POTUS, YOLO), avoid acronyms.
Capitalize all letters of the acronym – no periods – in most cases (with rare exceptions) to avoid confusion between acronyms that look like words and their “twins.” For example, SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics) and swat (transitive verb, to hit with a sharp slapping blow usually with an instrument) or MAMAS (Mutual Aid of Medford and Somerville) and Mamas (plural colloquial noun, mother; plural slang noun, sexy attractive older woman).
addict, addiction
Addiction is a recognized genetic chronic illness involving the brain, a person’s experiences and environment, but is not a medical diagnosis. It is common-use language.
An addict is a person who seeks reward from a substance or behavior with impaired decision making and behavior despite harms caused by the behavior. Because of the stigma associated with addict, use person-first language (“a person with an addiction or substance use disorder” or “a person who uses drugs” “a person in recovery”) unless in a direct quote.
From Reporting On Addiction:
“People with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue use despite harmful consequences.
Prevention efforts and treatment approaches for addiction are generally as successful as those for other chronic diseases.
Severe and chronic substance use disorders may be referred to as an addiction.
Addiction is a lot like other chronic diseases, such as heart disease, asthma, or cancer. They all disrupt the normal, healthy functioning of your body, have serious harmful effects, are treatable, and in some cases preventable. They are also progressive meaning if left untreated, they can become severe and may lead to death. Lifestyle changes can help with these diseases, but treatment often requires a trained medical professional.”
Also see recovery, rehab, and substance use disorder
affect
The word “affect” is both a verb and a noun, though it is best known in its verb form, where it can be thought of as meaning “to influence or cause a change” or “produce an effect on someone or something.” It is pronounced with a short a (ə-‘fekt).
Examples of use:
- The bright light affected him greatly, causing a migraine.
- Fruits and vegetables affect health in so many positive ways.
- It is a disease that affects millions of patients each year.
- Diabetes is a disease that affects the pancreas.
- Visiting the art exhibit was an experience that affected them powerfully.
- Try not to let emotions affect your decision.
As a noun, “affect” can be thought of as describing emotion. It is pronounced with emphasis on the a. (ˈa-ˌfekt, from the German Affekt, borrowed from Latin affectus).
Use this noun carefully, as it can be confusing to readers and is often used in a psychological or clinical manner. Examples:
- The psychological notes describe a flat affect of the patient, but an excitable vocal reaction.
- Apathy is often accompanied by a notable reduction in facial affect.
- She is an upbeat person and reflects that in her characteristic chipper affect.
If, as a noun, affect creates confusion in the sentence, reword the sentence or use a synonym.
The words “affect” and “effect” are not interchangeable. For more on how to use effect as either a noun or a verb, see effect.
afflicted with, suffers from, victim of
When discussing diseases or conditions, avoid using “afflicted with,” “stricken with,” “suffers from” or “victim of.” Instead, use “living with” or “diagnosed with,” as appropriate.
“Victim of crime” is an ICD diagnosis and is appropriate to use in certain circumstances when discussing such situations, but preferable language surrounding persons who have experienced crime is “survivor of.” Victim may also be appropriate in a legal sense when discussing a murder victim, a rape victim or an unnamed victim represented, whose case is brought by the state (i.e., the prosecution).
age
Always use Arabic numerals for people and animals. Use standard number rules for inanimate objects, companies, etc.
- The tiger is 8 years old.
- They turn 101 years old this September.
- Crayola, the best-known maker of children’s crayons, turned 100 years old in 2003.
- The garden is only three years old.
Hyphenate with “years old” when using age as an adjective.
- My three-year-old garden was built using permaculture techniques.
- The 8-year-old tiger is very playful.
- The 101-year-old former political stalwart gave a rousing speech.
- Century-old Crayola is still dominant in the crayon market.
allege, alleged, allegedly
In reporting on a crime, rather than use terms like alleged murderer or alleged rapist, attribute the allegation.
Examples:
When a suspect is identified:
- Jamie Doe is suspected of raping three people, police said. Attorney Sylvan Star said their client denies the accusation.
When charges are brought:
- Alex Schmoe was arraigned today on four charges: two charges of sexual assault, one charge of manslaughter and one charge kidnapping. Standing beside their attorney Lain Limore, Schmoe entered a plea of not guilty.
- Prosecutors accuse Schmoe of kidnapping and raping a 17-year-old person, who then died from their injuries.
When a case is over:
- A jury found Dex Dylan not guilty of embezzlement today, after a months-long trial.
- Prosecutors brought four charges against Dylan, accusing them of embezzling funds during their tenure as mayor, but defense attorney Nin White, said it was clear from the beginning the guilt truly lay with the city’s poor accounting, not Dylan.
- Tryn Ball pleaded guilty today to one count of rape and one count of false imprisonment.
- In what had been a widely covered case, Ball was accused by six women of rape. Prosecutors said it was in the best interest of the women who were held by Ball to offer a plea deal and spare the women a trial.
The term can be equally inappropriate and traumatizing for the victim of the crime. When saying the crime is alleged, it implies the crime may or may not have taken place. This is especially traumatic for victims of sexual violence. This is yet another reason to not use such terms as allege, alleged, and allegedly.
Terms such as allege, alleged and allegedly are appropriate for civil matters and non-criminal matters, but accusations should always be attributed.
Example:
- A group of community organizers allege the mayor used racially charged terms during a closed-door meeting – and have released a recording.
For more information or examples, see Reporting on Rape and Sexual Violence and DART Center for Trauma-informed Journalism.
ALT text
All images, whether photos or graphics, get ALT text assigned to them.
ALT text for photos should include the following:
- when and where was the photo taken
- how many people are in the photo? A basic description of the action of these people and any basic relevant emotions or expressions is fine.
- any important details about the photo such as weather conditions, landmarks, signs, action, etc.
ALT text for infographics and other data visualization should include:
- the image or chart type
- the type of data or what’s in the image
- the reason for including the image or chart
ALT text for art or drawings should be written in a similar manner to photos, noting that they are art and what kind of art.
Keep ALT text for social media to the minimal descriptions of need-to-know visual information. Max character limit is usually 1000 characters.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (the ADA) is a U.S. federal civil rights law that prohibits the discrimination of disabled people. It guarantees the rights of disabled people to services; purchases of goods; employment opportunities; and federal, state, and local government services. It is enforced through civil litigation.
Title III of the ADA requires that privately operated businesses, transit and nonprofits must offer disabled people an equal opportunity to access the goods or services they offer. Religious entities are exempt from Title III.
Since the last congressional updates to the ADA, it can be found in US Code Title 42, Chapter 126, Equal Opportunities for People with Disabilities.
American Sign Language (ASL)
American Sign Language (ASL) is a distinct language from English with distinct rules and distinct grammar structure, per the National Association of the Deaf (NAD), which calls ASL “the backbone of the American Deaf Culture.”
One does not speak ASL but signs (preferred), uses or communicates in ASL.
amusia
Also see tone deaf.
Amusia, commonly called tone-deafness, is a congenital or acquired condition in which neural pathways in the brain prevent pitch and sound from being communicated to parts of the brain that help distinguish them. While a person with amusia may hear tones and sounds, they will not process the individual differences in tones and sounds. There is no cure. About 4 percent of the population has congenital amusia.
aphasia
A communication disorder which can affect how a person understands what is being communicated to them, how they communicate to others, or both. The disorder is sometimes the result of a stroke, a brain tumor, a brain hemorrhage, or other brain injury.
Do not confuse aphasia with oral or speech apraxia, though the two may occur together.
Also see apraxia.
aphorisms
Coming soon.
apraxia
A movement disorder in which there is an inability to perform voluntary movements despite no sensory nerve or muscle impairment. Rather, the disorder is the result of neurological condition.
Do not confuse oral or speech apraxia with aphasia, though the two may occur together.
Asperger’s, Asperger’s syndrome
For general purposes, use autism and autistic instead of Asperger’s.
The Autistic Self Advocacy Network recommends not referring to Asperger’s at all due to the history of the disorder’s namesake. The disorder was brought into the diagnostic umbrella of Autism Spectrum Disorder in 2013 and is now referred to as such.
Only use Asperger’s syndrome if referring to historical references of the diagnosis with clarifying language that is now understood to be part of the diagnosis of ASD.
See autism, autistic.
assure
A transitive verb that means to make sure or certain or convince; to inform positively; to make certain the coming or attainment of or guarantee; to make safe (as from risks or against overthrow); or to give confidence to.
glancing back to assure himself no one was following
Examples:
I assure you that we can do it.
EAPM works hard to assure accurate reporting.
The military assured the security of the base.
augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)
The ways in which people communicate other than oral speech. Augmentative communication refers to communications techniques in addition to speech, while alternative communication refers to techniques used in place of speech. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association refers to both no- or low-tech types of AAC and high-tech types of AAC.
No-tech and low-tech types of AAC include:
- Gesturing with hands and body
- Facial expressions.
- Writing or drawing.
- Using a picture of letters to spell (by pointing to them or moving them)
- Pointing to photos, pictures, or written words.
High-tech types of AAC include:
- Communication with a communication board, iPad or tablet.
- Using a computer or AI to create audible speech (speech-generating technology).
For more information on speech disabilities and AAC-users, see CommunicationFirst.
audio description
Also called visual description or descriptive video. This narrative audio track gives an essential visual context for people who are blind or have low vision.
For video, it is often presented as an alternative or additional audio track. For both video presentations and audio presentations, it is best to integrate as much visual descriptive information as possible into the primary audio track as possible by:
- Having subjects identify themselves and describe themselves
- Having narrators describe surroundings using visual language
In a separate audio description track for video, narration will be focused on visual descriptions in the video. This track should be available for playback in the video player. If the video includes charts, graphs or bullet point lists, those lists should also be made available outside the video with ALT text and image descriptions.
authoritarianism
A form of rule in which power is centrally concentrated in one person, a small group of people, or one political party. It sees the rejection of political plurality and suppression of dissent and many freedoms.
Authoritarianism can be autocratic, though not all autocrats are authoritarians, or it can be oligarchic. It may be under the rule of a political party or under the rule of a military.
Key features of authoritarianism are:
- Lack of free and fair elections, although elections may take place
- A lack of a free press, including jailing of journalists
- Jailing or killing of dissidents
- Manipulation of information
- Control by the central authority and incorporation into the central authority of all levels and areas of government
Also see oligarchy.
autism, autistic
A disability that affects how people experience the world around them, which can be professionally- or self-diagnosed. People are born autistic and there is no one way to be autistic. Some autistic people may have other disabilities such as physical or intellectual disabilities; some don’t. Some people may need additional help in their daily lives.
Shared traits include:
- Thinking differently;
- Processing senses differently;
- Moving differently;
- Communicating differently;
- and socializing differently.
Therefore, EAPM will:
Refrain from using functioning labels when discussing autism. Functioning labels are an outdated descriptor that many autistic people dislike. Instead of saying “high functioning” or “low functioning”, we will use language about support needs, such as “higher support needs” and “lower support needs”. Do not use the terms “profound” or “severe” when describing autism (i.e. “profound autism”) or any disability, unless it is in a direct quote.
First and foremost call people by their names.
Interview autistic sources when discussing the topic of autism. Understand that no two people experience autism the same way. Do not let groups such as Autism Speaks, a group that often speaks from a parents’ perspective, nor the Autism Self Advocacy Network, a group that speaks often speaks from the perspective of those with low support needs, speak for all autistic people.
Use identify-first language (autistic person, not person with autism; autistic community, not community with autism). Never use “special needs.”
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
A medical diagnostic term and set of criteria outlined in the DSM-5 for a broad spectrum of neurological conditions that appear early in life (usually before age two) and may affect social, behavioral, learning and communicative development. It can be diagnosed at any age. The terms autism spectrum disorder and ASD are medical diagnostic terminology and do not describe a person or their lived experience.
ASD has more than 100 identified genes that are variants positively identified as causative or variants of interest. ASD and neurodivergent conditions have also been noted as occurring with high rates in other genetic conditions such as Ehlers Danlos Syndrome.
As with any medical and diagnostic terminology or jargon, this is to only be used with medical reporting in the title of study or in direct quotation. It is not to be used to label or identify a person.
For use of words such as autism and autistic in describing oneself or in advocacy, see autism, autistic.
B
Black, African American
We will follow the policies of the National Association of Black Journalists.
A person’s preference determines which term to use, but the aim should be as specific as possible: Haitian American, Jamaican American, Jamaican living in America (for a non-U.S. citizen living in the United States), African American or Black. If a person does not give a stated preference, but race is a relevant factor to the article, use Black.
Black, when used to describe race, is capitalized. NABJ suggests aiming to use Black as an adjective rather than a noun, such as Black community, Black excellence, etc.
African American is two words as a noun but a hyphenated word as an adjective. (Also see compound nouns and compound adjectives.
Black American Sign Language (BASL)
Black American Sign Language (BASL) is a dialect of American Sign Language (ASL) that developed due to exclusion and segregation of schools for the Deaf community in the United States. The first school for deaf students opened in 1817 in the U.S. but was only open to White students. A school for Black deaf students later opened in 1869.
BASL uses two-handed signing; although the languages share some signs, hand placement varies with ASL using hand placement around the body and BASL using hand placement around the face; and BASL also includes facial expressions and physical space when signing. There are some differences in words and phrases, and not all ASL interpreters understand or can interpret in BASL.
Also see American Sign Language (ASL).
bible, the Bible
Broadly, any book, reference work, periodical, etc., accepted as authoritative or informative. In this generalized sense, lowercase.
Examples:
- When it comes to medical terminology, this is my bible: Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary.
- Journalists often call the AP Stylebook the bible of journalism.
Capitalize when referring to any book or books of the Scriptures used by Christian faiths and others in the Old Testament and/or the New Testament. In this sense, as a whole, the Bible is a collection of writings compiled through centuries and authorized by various church councils, rather than a single book. The Old Testament is a Christian designation for the Jewish holy works known as the Tanach, what is often called the Hebrew Bible. Use AP style for numbering chapter and verse, as in Luke 21: 1-13.
From the Religion Journalism Association Stylebook:
- When citing biblical verses, In Protestant Bibles, Old Testament books, in order, are: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Tanach contain the same books but in different order.
- Roman Catholic Bibles follow a different order, use some different names and contain seven additional, or deuterocanonical, Old Testament books (called the Apocrypha by Protestants): Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch.
- The books of the New Testament, in order, are: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation (in Catholicism, the traditional name for this last book is Apocalypse, but the Catholic News Service advises using Revelation except in direct quotations).
Unlike the AP and Religion Journalism Association, EAPM does not broadly use the term Hebrew Bible, either in general or in stories about Judaism. For correct use, see Tanach.
blind, low vision
Both the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) and the National Federation of the Blind (NFB) use the terms blind and low vision, not “vision impaired” or “vision impairment.” NFB also uses the phrase “people losing vision” to describe people becoming medically blind or low vision. We will adopt their terminology.
blind spot, blind to
Terms like “blind spot” and similar phrasing when used in phrases such as “they have a blind spot to the situation” or “they are blind to the needs of others.” Try to write around such phrasing or use alternative phrases:
- Feigned ignorance
- Lack of confidence
- Lack of knowledge
- Willful ignorance
- Turned away
- Ignored
- Drawback
- Deliberately ignoring
- Turning their back on
- Overcome by prejudice
- Doubly anonymous
- Had every reason to know
u0022Board of Education v. Rowleyu0022 (u0022Rowleyu0022)
“Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District Board of Education, Westchester County, v. Amy Rowley” was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1982. Parents Clifford and Nancy Rowley sued the district on behalf of their child, Amy, to require a sign language interpreter in the classroom. In kindergarten and in first grade, Amy’s IEP was prepared by the school district providing only a hearing aid and promoting lip reading. Her parents argued that without a sign language interpreter, Amy would only be able to understand 60 percent of classroom instruction.
The 6-3 decision led by Judge William Renquist defined “free appropriate public education” (FAPE) under the Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (HCA). “Rowley” provided that children be educated in the most inclusive environment. The court specifically noted four areas that special education: “A) have been provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction, and without charge, (B) meet the standards of the State educational agency, (C) include an appropriate preschool, elementary, or secondary school education in the State involved, and (D) are provided in conformity with the individualized education program required under section 1414(a)(5) of this title.”
Because neither “Rowley” nor the HCA defined the standard of special education, the Federal District Courts and school districts were free to interpret the level of special education. The Rowley case law can be found at Cornell’s Law Library.
Also see “Endrew F. v. Douglas County Schools” (“Endrew F.”) and FAPE.
book titles
Capitalize all major words in a book title and surround the title with quotes. Use this rule for most literary works, including fiction, nonfiction, memoirs, biographies, and anthologies. Examples:
- Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’ first work, “On Grief and Grieving”
- “Year of the Tiger: An Activist’s Life,” by Alice Wong
- The New York Time’s essay collection, “How Race is Lived in America”
- Walter Cronkite’s memoir “A Reporter’s Life”
Periodicals, reference catalogues, encyclopedias, dictionaries, religious works, almanacs, handbooks, etc., also have major words capitalized, but are not surrounded by quotations marks. Examples:
- the EAPM Style Guide
- the Mahayana Sutras, a broad Buddhist text
- The Old Farmer’s Almanac
- Encyclopedia Brittanica
- The Associated Press Stylebook
- The Mirriam-Webster Thesaurus
Braille
Braille is a tactile system writing consisting of raised dots and can be used in any number of languages. The National Federation of the Blind says Braille is vital to the literacy of Blind and low vision people because it teaches grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Some countries include Braille on their printed currency and coins. January 4 is World Braille Day.
buses, busses
The plural of the word bus (a large vehicle used in transportation) is buses. The word buss means kiss. While some dictionaries list an acceptable plural of bus as busses, the plural of buss is busses and would therefore create confusion.
C
cabal
A group engaged in schemes, especially against a government; or those schemes themselves. The word originates to Caballa, the Medieval Latin spelling for the Jewish Book of Mysticism and the mystic form of Jewish practice, Kabbalah. Therefore, EAPM will avoid using this term, despite its current and frequent political use. For how to handle it when quoted, see an editor.
camel case
Used in coding and in hashtags. The first word is lower case and each word that follows is capitalized.
Examples:
- #everydayHustle
- #catVideos
- #goodTrouble
- #justiceForAlex
- primeMortgageRate
- breastCancerAwareness
capital, Capitol
Capital is a noun with a number of meanings:
1. Referring to any of a series of upper case letters in an alphabet;
2. Being the seat of government; a city serving as a seat of government; or a city preeminent in some special activity;
3. Being of chief importance or influence;
4. Most serious;
5. Punishable by death; involving executions;
6.A stock of accumulated goods; the value of these accumulated goods; accumulated goods devoted to the production of other goods; to bring in income; net worth; a store or supply of useful assets or advantages
7. In architecture, the uppermost member of a column crowning the shaft and taking the weight of the entablature.
Do not confuse with Capitol, which is used in reference to the U.S. Capitol, where the U.S. Senate and U.S. House meet, or Capitol H
climate change
Observations and modeling in the local, regional and global climate across time using data collected from sea level changes, glacial changes, sea and air temperature changes and other changes to show a pattern of change in the climate. “Changes observed in Earth’s climate since the mid-20th century are driven by human activities, particularly fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere, raising Earth’s average surface temperature. Natural processes, which have been overwhelmed by human activities, can also contribute to climate change, including internal variability (e.g., cyclical ocean patterns like El Niño, La Niña and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation) and external forcings (e.g., volcanic activity, changes in the Sun’s energy output, variations in Earth’s orbit),” explains NASA.
Although the terms global warming and climate change are often used interchangeably, global warming is actually an aspect of climate change, per NASA, and the terms are not interchangeable.
Please note: Due to concerns of misinformation or removal of terms like climate change and global warming by the Trump administration from all government websites, the links are archived pages.
coda
A noun meaning a concluding event, remark, or section; often used in connection with performing arts such as music or dance.
Do not confuse with the acronym CODA, which stands for child of deaf adult.
CODA (child of deaf adult)
An acronym that stands for child of deaf adult.
Do not confuse with the noun coda.
closed captioning (CC)
Synchronized text that accompanies video to describe dialogue and sound effects. It is stored as a separate track from the audio and video and can be turned on and off by the viewer.
To create a closed caption file on a Windows operating system:Notepad is automatically installed with Windows. Start the app by typing Notepad in the Cortana Ask me anything box or by searching for Notepad on the Start menu.
When Notepad is open, save your closed-caption file with a name in the following format:
MyClosedCaptions.en.vtt
Include the standard locale name such as “en” (for English) or “es” (for Spanish). The file name extension must be “.vtt”.
- In the Save As dialog box in Notepad, enter a name in the File name box including the .vtt filename extension and enclose the entire name in quotation marks.
- In the Save as type box, select All Files (*.*). These actions ensure that the file is saved with the required .vtt filename extension (rather than a .txt extension).
- In the Encoding box, select UTF-8. (This option ensures that any complex characters, such as international characters will be displayed accurately on the screen.)
To create a closed caption file in an OS operating system: TextEdit comes with macOS. Start the app by typing TextEdit in the Spotlight Search box.
- When TextEdit is open, select “New Document.”
- Select the Format menu, and then select Make Plain Text.
- Select the “File” menu, select “Save,” and then type a file name in the following format:MyClosedCaptions.en.vtt
- A common practice is to include a two-letter language code such as “en” (for English) or “es” (for Spanish). The file name extension must be “.vtt”.
- For “Plain Text Encoding,” use the default value of “Unicode (UTF-8).”
- Uncheck “If no extension is provided, use “.txt”.”
- Select “Save.”
The first line in the file must be:
WEBVTT Subsequent entries in the file are called “cues,” and they consist of:
- A time marker (beginning time and end time, separated by an “arrow,” –>). Each time marker is designated in the following format: hh:mm:ss.ttt Use two digits each for hours (hh), minutes (mm), and seconds (ss). Insert colons (:) to separate the hours, minutes, and seconds without a space in between. Include a period after ss, followed by three digits for thousandths of a second (ttt). Ensure that there is no space in the time format.
- Just remember to add the hours (00:) at the beginning, use two digits for the minutes, and add a third digit after the period to comply with the required time format.
- Text that needs to appear on the screen during that particular segment of time.(Limit yourself to a maximum of three lines of text to ensure all the words fit on the screen.)
Example:
WEBVTT
00:00:01.000 –> 00:00:05.330
Good day everyone, my name is June Doe.
00:00:07.608 –> 00:00:15.290
This video teaches you how to build a sandcastle on any beach.
In the example above, the first caption appears after the video has played for one second, and it remains on the screen until 5.330 seconds of the video have elapsed. The next caption appears after the video has played for 7.608 seconds, and it remains on the screen until 15.290 seconds of the video have elapsed. The second caption is split into two lines to ensure that the statement is not too wide to fit on the screen.
Here is an in-depth guide to creating .vtt files.
Also see open captions.
color blind
Also see color vision deficiency.
The term “color blind” when used in the context of race or racism has been identified by multiple sources as both ableist and perpetuating racism.
As the American Psychological Association explains, “Color-blind beliefs in a racial sense purportedly are based on the assumption that acknowledgment of race reifies racial divisions in society. People who endorse color-blind beliefs believe that individual effort is sufficient for achievement in a meritocracy predicated on the idea that everyone has equal opportunities for life success. People who hold color-blind attitudes believe that doing so reduces racial and ethnic prejudice and that acknowledging racial and ethnic differences promotes racial division. However, research shows that holding color-blind beliefs allows racial and ethnic prejudice to fester (Pahlke et al., 2012; Richeson & Nussbaum, 2004). Likewise, scholars are beginning to acknowledge the inherent ableism in the term “color-blind” to describe beliefs and policies that promote a deficit orientation toward disability.”
The APA Inclusive Language Guide suggests using color expansive instead. However, as this term is not in wide use and can be confusing, it is best to write around the term. Where one might write “color-blind policies,” try race-neutral policies or policies that ignore a person’s skin color, etc. Instead of saying “color-blind beliefs,” try beliefs that are not based on skin color or beliefs that are not based on race, etc.
color vision deficiency
Commonly called color blindness, color vision deficiency is a rare condition affecting mostly men. It can be inherited, caused by disease or by injury. There are multiple types:
- Deuteranomaly – a red-green color vision deficiency, in which shades of green look more red. This is the most common and is usually mild.
- Protanomaly – a red-green color vision deficiency that makes certain shades of red look more green and less bright. This type is mild.
- Protanopia – a red-green color vision deficiency in which someone cannot differentiate between red and green.
- Deuteranopia – a red-green color vision deficiency in which someone cannot differentiate between red and green.
- Tritanomaly – a blue-yellow color vision deficiency disrupting differentiation between blue and green and between yellow and red.
- Tritanopia – a blue-yellow color vision deficiency disrupting the distinction between blue and green, purple and red, and yellow and pink. It also makes colors look less bright.
- Monochromacy or achromatopsia – these rare conditions cause complete color vision deficiency in which a person cannot see colors. Depending on the type, a person may also have trouble seeing clearly and may be more sensitive to light.
colloquialisms
A regional or cultural word or phrase used in informal conversation and everyday writing. It is often not recognized outside of a particular region or culture. Colloquialisms can include slang, idioms, and informal expressions.
Examples of colloquialisms in a sentence:
- It’s wicked cold out today. (The colloquialism wicked is from eastern Massachusetts and means extremely.)
- This room is a hot mess. (The phrase hot mess claims several origins and means chaos.)
- I can’t wait to eat at that new jawn. (The colloquialism jawn is from Philadelphia and an all-purpose word.)
- The nanny pushed the baby in the pram. (The British colloquialism pram is another word for carriage.)
- In news, do not use colloquialisms except in quotes, after which explain it for readers who may not be familiar with it.
commonwealth
A commonwealth is a nation, state or political unit founded on law for the common good of the people.
In the United States of America, there are four states identified as commonwealths: Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky. Two U.S. territories are also commonwealths: Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands.
See also state.
complement, compliment
The homonyms “complement” (with an e) and “compliment” (with an i) are easily confused.
The noun “complement” (with a p l e) is a thing that “completes or makes perfect” something else. As a verb it means “to complete or make perfect.” Examples:
- Jam complements peanut butter.
- Jude and Sam complement each other well.
- On the color wheel, red and green are considered complimentary colors.
- The wood floors are a great complement to the marble tile.
- Complimentary angles are always 90 degrees.
The noun “compliment” (with a p l i) means “an expression of praise or admiration.” The verb form means “to praise or admire.” Examples:
- The professor paid the student many compliments on her term paper.
- My compliments to the chef!
- Please compliment your coworkers on a job well done.
The adjective complimentary (with a p l i) means “expressing of praise or approving.” It can also mean “given or supplied free of charge.” Examples:
- The professor is complimentary to their students.
- Please be complimentary to your coworkers.
- Airlines no longer offer complimentary snacks or beverages on short flights.
- The restaurant offers complimentary mints after the meal.
compose
The verb compose is the act of making or creating something or making something, most often original or unique. It is often used with art, music or literature. Examples:
- He composed a new novel last year after a 20-year hiatus from writing.
- The student composed a new song for their mother.
- The painter composed the portrait using pastel on wood.
Also see consist of, comprise and constitute.
compound adjective
If a compound adjective or compound adjective made of proper nouns is made from two words, in most cases, hyphenate the words.
Examples:
- The new restaurant serves Haitian-American style food.
- The team’s first-quarter goal set the tone for the game.
- The deep blue-green paint made the room dark and moody.
compound noun
If a compound noun or proper noun is written as two words, do not hyphenate in most cases.
Examples:
- The new restaurant’s owner is Haitian American.
- The team scored in the first quarter.
- She painted the room a deep blue green.
Note: if a hyphen would help avoid ambiguity, use it.
consist of, comprise
The word comprise and the phrase consist of both means “to be made (up) of.”
Consist of is used only in the active form, whether in present or in past tense. Examples:
- The United Nations consists of 193 member states.
- During the Civil War, the Union consisted of 20 states.
The word comprise is considered more formal than consist of. Examples:
- The new trade zone will comprise North American and Central American countries.
- The board comprises 10 members.
In either instance, it is fine to replace these with the plain language to be made (up) of. Examples:
- The United Nations is made up of 193 member states.
During the Civil War, the Union was made up of 20 states.
- The new trade zone will be made up of North American and Central American countries.
- The board is made up of 10 members.
Also see compose and constitute.
constitute
The word constitute means the act of forming or making up something from different elements or pieces to create a whole or new entity. Examples:
- The U.S., Canada, and Mexico constitute USMCA, which replaced NAFTA.
- Working-age adults constitute the largest portion of uninsured Americans.
- Sixteen ingredients constitute this amazing recipe.
- Three key Supreme Court decisions constitute the guiding principles for journalists regarding libel.
Also see compose and consist of, comprise.
council
The word council means an advisory, deliberative, or legislative body of people formally constituted and meeting regularly or an assembly or meeting for consultation or advice. People who sit on a council are councilmembers.
Do not mistake the words “counsel,” ending in –sel, for “council,” ending in -cil. They are not interchangeable.
Also see counsel, counselor.
counsel, counselor
The word counsel means advice, given formally, such as in therapy, legal advice, etc. A person who provides advice is called a counselor. A lawyer conducting a case is also called counsel.
Do not mistake the words “counsel,” ending in –sel, for “council,” ending in -cil. They are not interchangeable.
Also see council.
CoVid, CoVid-19
Capitalize the C and the V in CoVid and CoVid-19. Either CoVid or CoVid-19 is acceptable.
The acronym CoVid stands for Corona Virus disease.
EAPM has chosen to use an option that respects the words from which the acronym is made and is consistent with the name of the virus, SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, Co (for Corona, with the C capitalized and o lower case); Vi (for Virus, with the V upper case and the i lower case); and d for disease (d is lower case).
CoVid-19 is the disease caused by a variant of the virus SARS-CoV-2. It is considered primarily a respiratory disease but can affect many parts of the body.
Also see SARS-CoV-2 and Long CoVid.
D
datelines
In all cases, it is the city, followed by state or territory abbreviation (domestic), or the country (international). A space then em-dash then another space separates the dateline from the copy.
Examples:
- Springfield, Ill. — A seven-car pileup brought traffic to a halt today…
- San Juan, P.R. — An early-morning earthquake rocked the Puerto Rico capital today…
- Belgrade, Serbia — Tensions between Serbia and Kosovo boiled over last night…
- New York, NY — A rare earthquake shoot the Big Apple Friday…
AP style includes cities that (domestic and international) stand alone in datelines. These are referred to as “magic cities.” EAPM style is to not have any city stand alone in a dateline; this for clarity.
deadnames
A name, typically given at birth, that a transperson no longer uses.
As a policy, EAPM does not print deadnames without the express permission of the person themselves. Consult the Trans Journalist Stylebook for more information and resources.
deaf, hard of hearing
Per the National Association of the Deaf, the terms deaf and hard of hearing are acceptable. Do not use “deaf-mute”, “deaf and dumb,” and “hearing impaired.”
When referring to the Deaf Community, Deaf Culture or American Deaf Culture, capitalization is used. Otherwise, deaf and hard of hearing are left lower case.
defamation
Written or spoken untrue statements about another person. The law guiding defamation falls under an area known as tort law. Laws can vary from state to state, but generally follow a division along the lines of slander (spoken) and written (libel) and with different standards for public and private figures. While private figure plaintiffs must generally show that the defendant was negligent when defaming the plaintiff, public figure plaintiffs must generally show that the defendant acted with “actual malice,” knowing that the statements were false or had reckless disregard for the truth.
Also see libel, slander, and public figure.
dis-, dys-
Although these prefixes are homonyms, they are not interchangeable.
The etymology of the prefix dis- comes from Latin, with an original meaning of “apart.” It’s root word, dwis, is related to duo and to bis, with a meaning of “two ways.” Today, the prefix dis- means opposite or opposite of.
The etymology of dys- comes from Ancient Greek, with an original meaning of “bad, evil, ill.” Today, the prefix dys- means bad, ill; hard, difficult; or abnormal, imperfect.
Do not hyphenate after the prefix in most cases. For hyphenation rules, see hyphen.
disability
Disability is defined in multiple ways. A dictionary definition of the word disability is:
A noun.
- The condition of being disabled; incapacity. The period of such a condition.
- A disadvantage or deficiency, especially a physical or mental impairment that interferes with or prevents achievement in a particular area.
However, disability is a lived experience and also a legal term. In the U.S., disability is defined under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA) and by Social Security for the purposes of Social Security Disability (SSD) and Social Security Insurance (SSI). For the most part, the U.S. government uses the ADA definition of disability as a standard across agencies. This definition is: “individual with a disability is defined by the ADA as a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a person who has a history or record of such an impairment, or a person who is perceived by others as having such an impairment.” The ADA does not specifically name all types of disabilities.
The World Health Organization (WHO) describes disability as “part of being human and integral to the human experience,” and a result of the interaction between health, environmental, and personal factors. (See more: https://www.who.int/health-topics/disability#tab=tab_1.)
The doctors, psychologists and other health care professions have often examined disability through “models,” including but not limited to:
- social model
- moral model
- medical model
As disability activists continue to lead discussions, some have proposed examining disability through ableism or implicit bias, while others have proposed examining it through accessibility.
For EAPM’s purposes, we will use the following definition of the disability, based loosely on a reading of the WHO and ADA:
Disability is a lived experience and identity that comes from a from a physical, mental, neurological or behavioral condition, or a history or record of having such a condition, or a person who is perceived by self or others as having such a condition. It results from an interaction of health, environment and/or personal facts (such as illness, genetic conditions, trauma, etc.). It is part of being human and is integral to the human experience.
Disability Justice movement
A movement, practice, and framework that centers intersectionality and includes interdependence, differences in disability, differences in identity, connections with other justice movements to overcome ableism and other oppression.
The term was first used in 2005 by disabled queer activists of color including Patty Berne of Sins Invalid, Mia Mingus, and Stacy Milbern. It was a pushback on the disability rights movement with criticism that it focused too much on independence of disabled people and capitalism and was built in white supremacy and gender-oppression, which, like ableism, describes bodies as “deviant,” “unproductive,” and “invalid.”
For more information, see the curriculum at Project LETS and see the resource library and Disability & Philanthropy Forum.
Disability Rights movement
A movement to prevent discrimination against disabled people to provide equality for disabled people within and by a legal framework. The movement focuses on the individual rights of disabled people as civil rights, with a focus on independence, freedom, and equity.
disabled person
Euphamisms such as “differently abled,” “special abilities,” “special needs,” other for disabled person should be generally be avoided. Some people do use such terms to describe themselves and are the cultural norm in some countries.
In some cases, we will allow other terms when in a quote when appropriate or when a person describes themselves using a eurphamism.
However, our style will be to follow the American disability community which is generally embracing the word disabled. Therefore, it is our style to use the words “disability,” “disabled person,” “disabled community,” etc.
Diversability
Diversability is a registered trademark of Diversability LLC, a company that promotes diversity in the disability community.
Dr. (title of doctor)
The title of doctor is applied on the first instance of a person’s name who both holds a degree and license as a medical or osteopathic doctor, surgeon, optometrist, ophthalmologist, dental surgeon or psychiatrist. It is written as “Dr. Sue Fields, a cardiothoracic surgeon at St. Lukes Hospital,” or “Dr. Jamie Jones, a psychiatrist with 20 years of experience” on the first instance. In all subsequent uses, only the last name is used.
It does not apply to other academic, research or professional doctorates such as religious doctorates, legal doctorates, naturopathic doctorates, veterinary medicine, chiropractic doctorates, or doctorates in allied health fields.
Note: Please clarify with clinical psychologists and research psychologists that their degree is a PsyD or PhD, not MD or DO. We do not grant the title of “Dr.” for PsyD or PhD.
DSM
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR) is a diagnostic and taxonomic reference book published by the American Psychiatric Association. The latest edition was published in 2022.
It is colloquially known as the DSM. EAPM’s style is to use the title (without the edition number unless necessary to the story) with the abbreviation in parentheses immediately following, with an explanation of what the DSM is/its purpose. On second reference, use DSM.
First reference examples:
- Dr. Ryle Johnson said the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), a reference book used for diagnosis by psychiatrists, was needed in proving the symptoms seen were not psychiatric, but likely neurologic in nature.
- Researcher and self-advocate Bennie Brooke said the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), a diagnostic reference book produced by the American Psychiatric Association, has made vast improvements in the description and treatment of many conditions from previous editions.
All second references, simply write DSM. Example:
- Brooke said the DSM still has a long way to go to stop medicalizing patients in a way that often strips them of their humanity.
dyscalculia
A specific learning disorder characterized by learning differences with numbers, arithmetic, calculation, number sense, or other math reasoning. A person may experience several or all the learning differences, making number processing more challenging.
dysgraphia
A specific learning disorder characterized by writing differences in which the individual may find either the process of transcribing thoughts onto paper through physically writing, the physical process of writing (such as holding a pen or a pencil, forming letters, or writing words) difficult, or both. There may be differences with expression, spelling, and grammar through the written expression. This can also lead to learning differences in reading and recognizing letters.
dyslexia
A specific learning disorder characterized by reading differences in which the individual may involuntarily reverse the order of letters or words or not recognize letters or words. This can affect rate, fluency, and accuracy of reading, but also writing.
E
Easy English
Easy English is a simple style of writing developed by Austrailian speech pathologist Cathy Basterfield.
It is a simple, short way of writing information to help:
- people with low literacy;
- acquired disabilities. Eg: after a stroke or car accident, head injury, or dementia;
- lifelong disabilities. Eg: someone with Down Syndrome, Intellectual Disability, Cerebral Palsy or Autism;
- psychiatric or mental illness;
- people who have reading differences;
- people with poor educational outcomes;
- people who left school during K12 education;
- others.
Sentences are short and use simple words. It is written to about a grade 3 level. See Access Easy English for guidelines.
EAPM will translate news into a form of Easy English, though it may not look or feel exactly like the orginal guidelines. (We will work with Access Easy English to develop news-specific guidelines.)
Note: Do not confuse or use guidelines posted by ASAN called “Easy Read: One Idea Per Line.”
Also see plain language.
effect
The word effect (pronounced E-fect, /ĭ-fĕkt′/) is both a noun and a verb.
It is best known as a noun and can be thought of as a result of, a cause, something designed to give a result, or the state of being operative. Here are some of examples of how to use effect as a noun:
- The legislation will have a cumulative effect on the program.
- Donations have a positive effect on our bottom line.
- The yellow paint gives the effect of sunshine in the room.
- They used amazing lighting effects in the movie.
- This slide show will have a great effect on the crowd.
As a verb, effect can be thought of as to cause or to bring about.
- It was the children who effected a settlement between their parents over custody.
- After weeks of protest, the students effected a resolution from the administration.
- The House will effect the demands from activists this week after passing the legislation along a party-line vote.
Neither use of effect, as either a noun or a verb, is interchangeable with affect. If uncomfortable with how effect sounds, or if you feel it might cause confusion for the reader, reword the sentence.
For how to properly use affect (as either a noun or a verb), see affect.
e.g.
An abbreviation that stands for the Latin phrase, exempli gratia. Instead use “for example.”
emotional support animal (ESA)
An emotional support animal is a pet (usually a dog or cat) that provides comfort to a person for psychiatric and emotional purposes. An ESA is not a service animal. It does not need to be trained to perform a task. An ESA does not need to be registered or prescribed, though sometimes prescribed or noted in medical records. ESAs are not included as assistance animals under the ADA, although some states with more expansive definitions do include them. People with ESAs are afforded some rights to housing with their ESAs under the Fair Housing Act.
endorsements
An endorsement or disfavor of political candidate, piece of legislation, specific product or company can all run afoul of nonprofit 501(c)(3) tax codes and is prohibited by staff and freelancers in publication.
For more information, see political endorsements and product endorsements.
u0022Endrew F. v. Douglas County School Districtu0022 (u0022Endrew F.u0022)
In “Endrew F. v Douglas County School District RE-1,” a unanimous Supreme Court of the United States ruled that disabled students have the right to more than a minimum education, which was the standard set by the Tenth Circuit Court.
The child at the center of the case, “Drew,” attended public school in the Douglas County School District (near Denver, Colo.) until second grade. His IEP was written to work with a diagnosis of autism. His parents removed him from public school stating he was not making progress and placed him in private school, where they stated he made academic, social and behavioral progress. They then sued the public school district for reimbursement.
The Tenth Circuit court ruled in favor of the district stating that under “Board of Education v. Rowley,” “free appropriate public education” need only provide an educational benefit more than the minimum standard of education. After “Rowley,” districts and courts had been free to interpret “free and appropriate public education” under IDEA in several ways, so long as students were provided with an IEP.
In “Endrew F.,” the SCOTUS ruled that a single standard needed to guide the IDEA and it needed to be more than merely “more than the minimum.” Rather, the decision said, a child must be able to “have the chance to meet challenging objectives” and a school must offer an IEP that is reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.” This standard applies to all public schools across the nation.
For the case, see the Justia library.
Also see FAPE and “Board of Education v. Rowley” (“Rowley”).
ensure
A transitive verb that means to make sure, certain, or safe or to guarantee.
Do not confuse with assure or insure.
epidemic
Coming soon.
every day, everyday
The compound word “everyday” is an adjective meaning ordinary or common place. Exapmle: These are my everyday shoes.
The phrase “every day” – two words – means something that occurs daily. Example: I wear these shoes every day.
F
FAPE
Stands for “free appropriate public education.” This is part of the statute guiding the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA). The term was defined in Board of Education v. Rowley (1982) and further solidified under Endrew F. v. Douglas County Schools.
Also see Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and Board of Education v. Rowley and “Endrew F. v. Douglas County Schools” (“Endrew F”) .
fascism
Coming soon.
faze
A transitive verb meaning to disturb, to disconcert, or to daunt. Converserly, the often used word “unfazed” means undaunted.
Examples:
She was fazed by the three-mile hike, as much of it was along a cliff side. The guide however, seemed to be completely unfazed by her concernes of falling.
Do not confuse with phase.
first person narrative
A literary or writing technique using the point of view of the narrator to tell the story. This uses I and me statements. Do not confuse first person narrative with First Voice or person-first language.
First-person narrative is rarely used in news, but will occasionally be used in analysis, commentary, and is often used in opinion and columns.
First Voice
A way of examining history or a historical issue from the point of view of those who have lived through it or from the point of view of those who have a deep connection to it.
First Voice is capitalized.
Examples:
- The 1619 Project is considered by many scholars to be both a journalistic endeavor and a First Voice work.
- The International African American Museum in Charleston is a First Voice institution.
flare, flair
The word “flair,” spelled -air, means “an instinctive skill or ability.” Examples:
- They have a flair for design.
- She has a flair for poetry.
- He has a flair for color.
The word “flare,” spelled -are, means “a fire, a blaze, or a burst.” Use this when speaking of disease or symptoms.
- Her lupus flares during the summer and in periods of stress.
- Although the firefighters thought they had the forest fire under control, there was another flare.
- Thank goodness we had flares in our car after the accident.
for all intents and purposes
The idiom, “for all intents and purposes,” originated in the 16th century English law. It is used to say “one thing is similar to another” or “for all functional purposes…”
The word intents, spelled i-n-t-e-n-t-s, is often erroneously replaced with intense, spelled i-n-t-e-n-s-e. This changes the meaning of the idiom. Do not confuse the two words. The correct idiom is “for all intents and purposes.”
functioning labels
Diseases and disabilities are sometimes described in terms of “functionality.” Functioning labels are an outdated descriptor.
Refrain from using functioning labels when discussing disease or disabilities. Avoid phrasing such as high functioning or low functioning in terms of a disability, especially mental, intellectual or developmental disabilities. Do not use the terms mild, profound, or severe when describing disease or disability, unless it is in a direct quote.
EAPM will use language about support needs, such as higher support needs and lower support needs.
Incorrect: She has profound autism.
Correct: She has higher support needs, including a personal care assistant for bathing and eating.
Incorrect: He is now low functioning due to advanced Alzheimer’s.
Correct: He has high support needs, including living in a memory-care unit at a nursing home.
Incorrect: They are a high functioning autistic and live independently.
Correct: They live independently and have low support needs.
G
gendered pronouns
Our publication policy is to respect a person’s gender and to use the pronouns of their use. We follow the policy of the Trans Journalists Association with reference to gender pronouns in all cases.
Sources should be asked for their pronouns, but we do not write the phrase noting a person’s “preferred pronouns” following first use. “Someone’s pronouns are not a preference, but rather the only appropriate way to refer to that person. … The term preferred pronouns is only appropriate when someone uses more than one set of pronouns and has a preference for one over the other,” explains TJA. We simply use the person’s preferred pronouns. From the TJA, “There is never a reason to explain the use of standard they/them, he/him, or she/her in a story. When a source uses less common pronouns, it’s acceptable to have a quick, appositive phrase explaining them: Taylor, who uses ze/hir pronouns, attended the event.”
They/them/theirs as a singular pronoun uses a plural verb according to TJA, and we will follow that same rule.
If someone uses multiple pronouns, such as masculine and gender-neutral pronouns or feminine and gender-neutral pronouns or indicates they use any or all pronouns, ask what pronouns that person would like to use in publication.
For further explanation see The Trans Journalists’ Association Style Guide.
global warming
One aspect of climate change. Not interchangeable with the term climate change.
Per NASA, Global warming is mainly caused by the burning of fossil fuels and the trapping of heat-producing gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. “Global warming refers to the long-term warming of the planet. Global temperature shows a well-documented rise since the early 20th century and most notably since the late 1970s. Worldwide since 1880, the average surface temperature has risen about 1°C (about 2°F), relative to the mid-20th century baseline (of 1951-1980). This is on top of about an additional 0.15°C of warming from between 1750 and 1880.”
grandfather clause
A term used by some historical building preservationists or historical neighborhood commissions to avoid creating accessible entry to historical buildings built before the passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The ADA does not include a “grandfather clause” for historical properties. The ADA does not exempt historical buildings open for public use or used by businesses from accessibility. EAPM will place the term “grandfather clause” in quotes when used in this context.
H
hegemony
Coming soon.
historic, historical
Do not confuse “historic” and “historical.”
“Historic” is an adjective that means something momentous, important, or likely to be important in history, or that holds a prominent place in history. Examples:
- The meeting between the reclusive dictator and the president was historic.
- This is a historic moment for the nation.
- After years of delay for the mission, the shuttle launch was historic.
- A historic battle is memorialized here.
“Historical” means the “related to the study of things from the past.” Examples:
- The Lincoln County Historical Society works hard to preserve the character of the town’s Colonial Era buildings.
- I’m a big fan of historical fiction.
- We took a tour of the historical battlefields of Massachusetts.
- American museums have begun to return historical items of religious and cultural significance to indigenous tribes.
Hustler Magazine v. Fallwell
In “Hustler Magazine, Inc., v. Fallwell,” the Supreme Court of the United States upheld First Amendment protections for parody.
In “Hustler,” Hustler Magazine published a fake ad featuring a fake interview with fundamentalist preacher Jerry Fallwell. The fake interview included sexual statements. Hustler included a statement that the ad was fake and that the interview was parody. Fallwell sued. A majority of the court agreed that the First Amendment protected the magazine’s right to publish the parody, even if the fake ad and its contents were both egregious and offensive.
Read the decision at the Findlaw library.
Also see parody.
I
ICD-10, ICD-10-CM
The ICD-10 is also known as the International Classification of Disease, 10th Revision. This manual defines diseases by code. It is used throughout the world for statistical research purposes when studying disease because the manual describes related or external causes of injury or disease. In the United States, it is also used by doctors, hospitals, Medicaid, Medicare, and private insurance for medical billing purposes.
IDEA
Coming soon
identity-first language
Identity-first language recognizes a part or parts of a person’s identity such as their disability, ethnicity, race, religion, gender-identity, sexual-identity, some careers, causes, etc. It is preferred in many cases by self-advocacy groups and is the style of EAPM.
Identity-first language also recognizes a person’s name is the most essential part of their identity, and therefore strives to call people first and foremost by their names.
Other parts of their identity are written as such:
- disabled person
- autistic woman
- queer man
- Muslim imam
- Jewish student
- LGBTQ activist
- Black-community leader
Identity-first language is not appropriate for things that are not part of someone’s identity such as a job; a criminal charge or incarceration status; a medical diagnosis (which is different from a disability or chronic illness); etc. In such cases, person-first is more appropriate.
If a source asks you to use person-first language instead of identity-first language in a situation where EAPM would normally use identity-first language, simply note in the story that this is the preference of the source and honor the source’s wishes.
idioms
A figurative phrase or expression deeply ingrained in a language and used to convey a particular message in a memorable way. It has a figurative meaning different from the literal meaning of the words used to form the phrase. An idiom will not make sense when translated into other languages.
Examples:
- kick the bucket (meaning to die)
- let the cat out of the bag (meaning to tell a secret)
- walking on eggshells (meaning to be careful and diplomatic)
- feeling under the weather (meaning to feel sick)
In news, do not use idioms except in quotes, after which provide an explanation of the idiom for readers who may not be familiar with the idiom or who may not know the translation.
Also see colloquialisms, jargon, and slang.
i.e.
An abbreviation for the Latin phrase id est. Instead say any of the following:
- another way of saying
- which means
- that is to say
- in other words
image description
The image description of the photo is not the same as the photo caption or the ALT text, though it may repeat some of the same information. Include the following information, taking into account what in the photo is most important and what is in focus:
- Detailed information on when and where was the photo taken? Was it on Beacon Street during a blizzard? Was it on H Street in 105-degree weather under sun-filled skies?
- How many people are in the photo? Who are they? Describe them: their race/ethnicity, their gender, their height, and, if relevant, what they are wearing, such as uniforms, torn clothing, matching protest t-shirts with slogans, etc.
- Objects (items people are holding, buildings, signs, etc.) that are relevant and their positions relative to people and other things.
- Detailed information about facial expressions and emotions of the people in the photo.
- Significant details about the photo (a weather event, a person protesting, damage to a building, etc.)
- Relevant text on signs or buildings.
An image description will follow the photo caption in a second paragraph and will be set off with the words Image description, then a colon, followed by the image description.
For infographics and data visualization, image descriptions should include:
- detailed information on the image or chart type.
- detailed information on the type of image and/or the type of data in the image.
- any words in the image or a transcription of the data in the chart (break it down into sections if this helps to make it more understandable).
- a description of any drawings or images that add information, but it’s ok to exclude if they do not add information. Example: if a pie chart is drawn to look like a baseball, and the data is about baseball, note that. If some information to the side also includes bullet points that are drawn to look like catchers’ mitts, it’s ok to leave that out.
Treat non-informational art and comics like photos when deciding what to include in an image description.
independent city
In the United States, an independent city is a city that is not associated with or a territory of any county. The United States Census Bureau considers independent cities statistically equivalent to counties. There are 41 independent cities: 38 in Virginia (due to the Constitution of the commonwealth of Virginia making all incorporated cities “free cities”); Baltimore, MD; Carson City, NV; and St. Louis, MO.
For more information, see census.gov.
influenza, flu
Influenza on first reference and include the variant of virus if necessary for the story or context. Flu on subsequent references.
An acute and contagious respiratory infection caused by any of the influenza viruses (A, B, C and subsequent types). The influenza virus has a great deal of variation and has been known to cause outbreaks and even epidemics even to those populations previously exposed to similar subtypes.
Incubation of the virus is one to three days, after which active symptoms lasting about five to seven days include:
- malaise
- chills
- fever above 101
- paroxysmal cough and sore throat
- muscle pain
Less frequent symptoms (sometimes in children) include nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
inmate
EAPM follows the style of the Prison Journalism Project when it comes to terms such as inmate, convict, and offender.
Per the PJP, those terms are defined thusly:
- Offender: in general, a person who commits an illegal act.
- Inmate: a person confined to an institution such as a prison.
- Convict: a person found guilty of a criminal offense and serving a sentence of imprisonment.
However, when interviewing or discussing a person who is incarcerated or person who is in jail, it is important to remember that, despite the nature of the crimes with which people or convicted, as journalists we should remain neutral and thus use neutral language. The most neutral of language is a person’s name, which is their identity; it is also the most human.
See PJP: Language Around Incarceration, identity-first language and person-first language.
inspiration porn
The objectification of disabled (or chronically ill) people, often with the intent to make nondisabled feel better about themselves or as a comparison point. Images or stories often show disabled people simply living their lives, though some show or describe highly skilled disabled athletes, musicians, artists, scientists, etc. Other instances praise a nondisabled person as a “hero” or “savior” in an interaction with a disabled person.
When inspiration porn features a disabled athlete, such as several that have featured Paralympic athletes, these can also be classified as part of the Supercrip model of disability.
Here are a few examples of inspiration porn:
- Wrestler lets opponent with Down syndrome win – CNN
- Teen with Down syndrome bursts into tears as best friend asks him to prom – Inside Edition
- Boy, 4, with speech delay says ‘I love you, Mommy’ for first time – today.com
- Inspirational Scot with cerebral palsy completes London Marathon – Daily Record
- ‘Inspirational’ group win prestigious national award – Liverpool Echo
- Visually impaired runner, guide prepare for 3rd Boston Marathon – wcvb.com
insure
invisible disabilities
ISP
Stands for internet service provider. Spell out and give the abbreviation on first use. Use ISP on second and subsequent uses.
J
jail
A city or county detention facility normally used to confine people awaiting arraignment, trial or sentencing for either felony or misdemeanor charges; serving sentences for misdemeanor judgments or pleas; or people confined for civil judgements such as contempt of court or failure to pay a fine. The term is not interchangeable with prison.
See prison and PIP Legal Terminology.
January 6
On first reference, the EAPM style is to use either:
- Jan. 6, 2001, attack on the U.S. Capitol
- attack on the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, 2001
In subsequent references, use on of the following:
- January 6
- January 6 attack
- 2001 attack on the U.S. Capitol
Spell out the month January, as opposed to the traditional way of writing a date. For specific memorials, follow proper name rules.
jargon
Specific words or language, often technical in nature, used by a particular group or profession that is difficult for others outside that group to understand.
In news, sometimes it may be difficult to avoid jargon or industry “buzzwords.”
Try to write around jargon. If a technical term or piece of jargon must be included, explain what it means. This is true if the term is used either in a quote or in a reported paragraph.
Also see colloquialisms, idioms, and slang.
K
Koran
L
lame-duck
Political jargon used to describe a person who has lost re-election for the seat they currently hold during the remaining days of their term or a political body during the interregnum period when the party will be losing control in the following session and is expected to achieve nothing in the remainder of the session.
It was first applied to Herbert Hoover during the four-month interregnum before president-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt was sworn in as his successor. Ironically, the term lame-duck, which includes the ableist term lame was applied to Hoover, but Roosevelt was disabled.
In EAPM’s strive to avoid both ableist terminology and jargon – which can be confusing for audiences – avoid the term lame-duck.
Consider instead using descriptive language for this interval period.
Example: Since the election, President Janes Johnson has been preparing their twilight administration to leave office by instructing their team to work with President-elect Zane Zelda’s transition team. However, Johnson said they don’t want to simply be seen as a caretaker-President during this time, so they are continuing to push congress to pass healthcare legislation.
lay, lie
“Lay” and “lie” are not interchangeable forms: “Lay” is a transitive verb and needs an object to act upon, whereas “lie” is an intransitive verb.
Even more simply put, “lay” is the action word. It takes a direct object. The past tense is “laid,” and the present tense is “laying.”
Examples using “lay” in the past tense:
- They laid the briefcase on the table. (laid works on the object briefcase)
- He laid out the arguments. (laid works on the object arguments)
- She laid the book on the stack. (laid works on the object book)
- They laid down hard truths. (laid works on the object hard truths)
“Lie” is the state of laying something or someone laying. It doesn’t take a direct object. Its past tense is “lay.” Its past participle is “lain.” Its present participle is “lying.”
- Examples using “lie” in the past tense:
- The flowers lay on the grave.
- They lay on the bed.
- She lay on the grass.
- The book lay on the table.
learning difference
The common term for the unique and individual ways a person might process, learn, and understand new information. A person may or may not have a learning disability or a learning disorder. At least one in five people has a learning difference. People who may experience a learning difference may be neurodivergent, people with an intellectual or developmental disability, people who have traumatic brain injuries, and other conditions.
EAPM will use the term “learning difference” in all references unless specifically referring to a diagnosed learning disorder or a learning disability as defined by the IDEA.
See IDEA.
learning disability
In the United States, the term learning disability is a legal term employed by the Department of Education, the Americans with Disability Act, state governments, and other areas of the government. Schools use specific criteria to determine the need for educational accommodations or adjustments under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Learning disability is defined by the IDEA Part B, Subpart D, 300.307.
Only use the term learning disability when speaking about the educational/legal use of the term. In all other cases, the EAPM style is learning difference.
See learning difference.
learning disorder, specific learning disorder
A medical diagnosis listed as Specific Learning Disorder. In the DSM-5/ICD-10, it merged three categories: dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. There are also speech and language learning disorders, such as stuttering or childhood apraxia (difficulty articulating) and nonverbal learning disorders. For more information, visit the Mayo Clinic’s informational web site on Specific Learning Disorders.
Only use the terms Specific Learning Disorder or learning disorder when speaking about the medical diagnosis of a learning disorder. Otherwise, the EAPM style is learning difference.
See learning difference.
legal citations
On first reference, full case name should be used for citing both pending legal cases and decided legal opinions before the judiciary. The proper style is to put the leading plaintiff then the letter v followed by a period to represent versus followed by the leading defendant. The entire case name is placed in quotes. On second reference, if the case is popularly known by either the name of the plaintiff or the defendant, it may be referred to as such. It is also placed in quotes.
Examples of first reference:
- “Brown v. Board of Education”
- “Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company”
- “Ableman v. Booth”
- “Griswold v. Connecticut”
Examples of second reference:
- “Rowley” – a commonly used shorthand for Board of Education v. Rowley
- “Tinker” – a commonly used shorthand for Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District
- “Dobbs” – a commonly used shorthand for Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization
- “Obergefell” – a commonly used shorthand for Obergefell v. Hodges
- “Miranda” – a commonly used shorthand for Miranda v. Arizona
libel
Any published form of defamation, including books, magazines, newspapers, social media, websites, and other publications.
Also see slander.
linguistic absolutisms
Words and phrases such as “always,” “never,” “everyone,” and “no one” are not only generalizations and vague, but they imply an absolute standard or practice in one word. Be specific in language and avoid these terms.
Long CoVid
Coming soon
M
mental health
EAPM will adopt the World Health Organization definition (updated 2022): “a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life, realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their community. It is an integral component of health and well-being that underpins our individual and collective abilities to make decisions, build relationships and shape the world we live in. Mental health is a basic human right. And it is crucial to personal, community and socio-economic development.”
mental health condition
Diagnosable disorders and illnesses ranging from mild to severe that affect a person’s mood, thinking, behavior, or a combination of the three. Treatments include a variety of psychological and psychiatric treatments such as therapies and medications. These conditions are outlined in the DSM.
Mental health conditions are not the same as having “a poor state of mental health” or “not taking care of one’s mental health.” One can have a poor state of mental health, such as having a high amount of stress, without having a mental health condition.
Due to the stigma associated with terms such as “mental illness,” “mentally ill,” “mentally disabled,” and similar terms, we will seek to either specify the condition or use the phrase mental health condition.
moral absolutism
Coming soon
more than
The phrase more than is an adverbial phrase referring to the comparison of a “greater or additional amount” (i.e., the word more) and therefore should be used with quantities.
Examples:
- They ordered more than a dozen eggs.
- More than 120 Republican representatives voted no.
- More than 4 reporters were hired.
- He needs more than a pound of ham.
- The company sold for more than $1 billion.
“More than” does not apply to measurements of distance or length, or spans of space even when using quantifying numbers; in these instances, use over.
It is not to be confused with the term over, a preposition. Although the AP Stylebook allows for the terms “more than” and “over” to be interchangeable as a matter of taste, we do not.
Also see over.
muckraking
A term coined for a type of investigative journalism practiced in the Progressive Era (1890s to 1920s) in which the journalists often became immersed in the story, sometimes living as or with their subjects to report the story. The most famous among the muckraking journalists are Ida B. Wells, Ida Tarbell, Upton Sinclair, and Jacob Riis. Today, the term is used for deep investigative reporting.
multimedia
A form of communication that uses a combination of print, video, audio, and other visual elements to create a cohesive presentation.
EAPM is a multimedia operation using written stories, audio readouts, Easy Read pullout, etc.
multimodal, multimode
Devices or technology that can be operated in different ways.
For example, the EAPM’s multimodal video media player allows users to view the video with or without captions; with or without an ASL translator; with a primary audio track or with an alternative audio track called audio description.
N
names
A name is an expression of a person’s identity and should be treated with care.
On first reference, use a person’s given name (first name) and surname (last name). On second reference, only a surname is warranted. Be aware that in some cultures, the practice is to put the surname first followed by the given name.
If necessary, in a news item to distinguish between two people with the same or similar surnames, then use both the given and surnames throughout. In longer news items, it may be necessary to reintroduce the person using both the given and surname.
When to use a given name instead of surnames:
- In light-hearted stories or columns, given names (first names) may be more appropriate, especially for children.
When to withhold a name:
- As a general rule, EAPM does not name people who have been raped or sexually assaulted, unless that person advises us otherwise themselves.
- Names of children under the age of 18 are withheld when they have been the victim of a crime or when they are charged with a crime in the juvenile court system.
- When an anonymous source is in danger by publishing their name and has been verified by both the reporter and is known at least one editor.
Also see identity-first language, deadnames and pseudonyms.
nationalism
Coming soon
nauseated, nauseous
Nauseated and nauseous are not interchangeable.
Nauseated is an intransitive verb that means to be affected by nausea or to feel ill or disgust.
Nauseous is an adjective that means causing nausea or the feeling of disgust.
The difference in usage is part of speech.
Examples:
- Those were some nauseous chili dogs.
- I’m nauseated from that horrible smell.
- That is a nauseous smell!
- I ate too many chili dogs and now I’m nauseated.
negligence
Conduct that falls below the standard of society.
In a law, negligence is a foundation of tort law. It is the failure to behave with the same care that a reasonable person would have used in the same circumstance. It contains five elements: harm to the plaintiff; the existence of a legal duty the defendant owed to the plaintiff; the defendant’s breach of that duty; the defendant’s actions are the proximate cause of the harm; and the defendant’s actions the cause-in-fact of the harm.
net neutrality
Sometimes referred to as “open internet” or “internet neutrality.” This is the idea that internet service providers should not toggle speed – speed up or slow down service – based on what website, content, service, or information a consumer is accessing. Under the Obama Administration, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved net neutrality rules in 2015 but rolled them back during the Trump Administration in 2018. In April 2024, the FCC voted to restore net neutrality rules.
New York Times v. Sullivan
A Supreme Court case establishing a test for libel cases. In “New York Times Co. v. Sullivan,” a unanimous court sided with the New York Times. The ultimate test for defamation (libel) was affirmed that, under the First Amendment, a defendant must show the plaintiff knew the statements were false or that the plaintiff was reckless in deciding to make the false statements.
The case began when the New York Times published a full-page ad soliciting donations to defend Martin Luther King, Jr., on charges of perjury. The ad contained several factual errors about the Montgomery, Ala., police actions. The Montgomery Public Safety commissioner, who was not named in the ad, wrote a letter requesting retraction based on the errors. When the New York Times refused, he sued.
To read the opinion and concurrences, visit the Justia library.
non-
Prefix meaning “not, reverse of, lack of, absence of.” Do not hyphenate after the prefix.
Also see un-.
nonapparent disabilities
A term used for those disabilities that may be thought of as “invisible,” “hidden,” or not immediately recognized or perceived by others. Do not hyphenate nonapparent.
nondisabled
A term used for people who do not have or do not experience disability. The phrases “does not experience disability” or “does not have a disability” are also acceptable. Other publications use a hyphen between non and disabled. EAPM does not hyphenate nondisabled.
nonspeaking, nonverbal
Terms used to describe a person who does not use speech. Such terms have a connotation that verbal is the “standard,” “correct,” “best,” “superior,” or “right” form of communication.
Although other disability journalism style guides allow these terms, EAPM will use them sparingly. EAPM does not consider speech as “the standard” form of communication, and therefore EAPM does not describe individuals as “nonspeaking,” “nonverbal,” or other similar terms. Avoid describing someone as nonverbal or nonspeaking.
If it is necessary to include in the news item how a person communicates, then simply refer to that form of communication.
Incorrect: Jean Jones is nonspeaking.
Better: Jean Jones is an AAC-user, most often using gestures and movements.
Incorrect: Shea Shawn is nonverbal; they used a communication board for the interview.
Better: Shea Shawn uses a communication board, as they did during this interview.
Incorrect: Jo Johnson, who is nonverbal, signed their answers in ASL.
Better: Jo Johnson signed their answers in ASL.
numbers
Spell out the following:
- numerals and numbers at the start of a sentence.
- numbers used in casual expression.
- ordinals first through ninth when they indicate sequence in time or location.
- numbers fewer than 10.
- ALWAYS spell out the word zero.
Examples:
- I said a million times yes!
- Six birds landed on her car as if it were an omen.
- There were three two-bed condos for sale.
- It’s the second annual meeting of the women’s group.
- The temperature will hover around zero.
Use the appropriate numeral in these instances:
- Arabic numerals for numbers 10 or more.
- Ordinal figures for 10th or more.
- Use the appropriate ordinal figure for military ranks and divisions.
- Use Arabic numerals vote tallies, ratios, sports scores, etc.
- Use Arabic numerals for temperature (except zero).
- In special instances where a Roman numeral is used.
- Roman numerals for money.
Examples:
- The company hired 367 new delivery drivers.
- This is the 10th annual dinner.
- In Act 3, Scene 2 of the play, the actor screams and frightens the audience.
- The 2nd District Court staid the case.
- Chase Choa defeated their opponent by a vote of 73,028 to 64,902.
- I have only $5.02.
- It’s only 5 degrees Fahrenheit above zero.
For how to use number when describing ages, see age.
O
O’Connor v. Oakhurst Dairy
An obscure court case from the First District Court of Appeals that was decided on the intent of a law around the lack of a comma, making the law ambiguous.
This case is an example of why EAPM chooses to use the Oxford Comma, also known as a serial comma, though most publications in the United States follow Associated Press style and omit the serial comma. In all cases, punctuation for clarity is better than omitting punctuation.
For the case, see the Findlaw library.
Also see comma.
oligarchy
A form of government or power that wrests with a small group of people, often with great wealth or familial ties.
open captions
Captioning that follows that audio track of a video and delivers the dialogue and possibly the sound effects by text on the screen. It is part of the video tract and is always shown with the video. This may be used in formats that do not support closed captioning such as social media.
Also see closed captioning (CC).
over
As a preposition of special relationships, over indicates movement above or across time or place. It can also indicate position or transition.
Examples:
- I’ll work over the weekend to finish the project.
- We hope not to go over budget this year.
- The board has control over the bylaws of the organization.
- Boston has changed over the last few years.
- The bridge will span over the river.
- The new highway will cross over 7 states – nearly 17,000 miles.
- The cross country team ran over 500 km in preparation for this weekend’s meet.
It is not to be confused with the term more than, an adverbial phrase. Although the AP Styleguide allows for the terms more than and over to be interchangeable as a matter of taste, EAPM does not.
Also see more than.
Oxford comma
EAPM policy is to use Oxford commas, also known as serial commas, for clarity. For rules, see comma.
P
pandemic
Coming soon.
pan-disability
An adjective referring to all forms of human disability, both apparent and nonapparent, those addressed by all theories and no matter how people identify. It is an expansive and inclusive conceptual term.
parody
A satirical or ironic imitation of a celebrity; politician; famous piece of art, literature, film, or other creative work; or the style of the creative person is exaggerated for comic effect or satire.
If a piece using parody is published by an EAPM publication either under opinion or as a creative work of fiction, it must be clearly marked as a parody (and/or satire) for the sake of those audience members who may not be able to easily parse tone, exaggeration, or fiction.
Also see Hustler Magazine, Inc., v. Falwell.
partly sunny, partly cloudy
See weather terminology.
Per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the terms partly sunny and partly cloudy during daylight hours are both applicable for a forecast or situation when the sky has between 3/10 and 6/10 cloud cover in the sky. At night, when there is no visible daylight, only the term partly cloudy is applicable.
Pascal case
Used in coding and in hashtags. The first word and each word that follows is capitalized. This is the preferred way to write hashtags as it works best with most screen readers, allowing screen readers to differentiate words in the hashtags.
Examples (we have highlighted the capitalized word with an underline for emphasis only):
- BreastCancerAwareness
- #EverydayHustle
- #CatVideos
- #GoodTrouble
- #JusticeForAlex
- PrimeMortgageRate
This is EAPM’s preferred style for hashtags in social media.
PBM
Coming soon.
person-first language
Person-first language is a style of describing a person first, followed by their status, situation, or another descriptor. While some use it with identities, EAPM will not. (For parts of a person’s identity, use identity-first language.)
EAPM will use person-first language in instances of such things as medical diagnoses, criminal charges and incarceration status, etc.
An example of the difference between a medical diagnosis versus a disability is as follows:
Person-first: The study looks at children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder.
Identity-first: The new school is specifically set up for autistic children.
Person-first: He was recently diagnosed with multiple sclerosis.
Identity-first: Though he considers himself “a newly disabled man,” he is now working as an MS-awareness activist.
Person-first: She started working at the Ford plant and joined the union.
Identity-first: Now, she is a union leader.
In the first example for each, it discusses a diagnosis or situation; in the second example discusses an identity.
Other examples of person-first language:
- A man who is incarcerated
- A woman who is diagnosed with a genetic disease
- A person who is incarcerated
- A person who works at a factory
If a source asks you to use identity-first language instead of person-first language in a situation where EAPM would normally use person-first language, simply note in the story that this is the preference of the source and honor the source’s wishes.
Also see identity-first language.
phase
As a noun, phase means a particular appearance or state in a regularly recurring cycle of changes; a particular and distinguishable part of development or course; or an aspect of a part of problem, theory, thesis, thought, concept, etc.
As a verb, to adjust to be synchronized; to carry out by planned process in stages; to introduces in stages, used with the word in.
Do not confuse with faze.
photos
Photos include both mugshots and photos taken by staff and freelance photographers that may stand alone, be part of a multi-photo assignment (a photo story) or accompany another reporter’s assignment.
Mugshots must include ALT text and a photo description, but do not need to include a photo credit or a photo caption.
Staff and freelance photos (whether standalone, as part of a photo story or as part of another reporter’s assignment) must include a photo credit, a caption and an image description. Each photo must also include ALT text.
photo captions
A photo caption is written in present tense and includes two or three sentences of information, and sometimes a quote from the subjects in the photos.
The first sentence where the photo was taken, who is in the photo and includes the date of the photo.
The subsequent sentences give pertinent background information to the action in the photo.
For quotes in photo captions, use present tense attribution.
photo credits
Photo credits describe who took the photo. It should include the photographer’s name and relationship to the paper.
Examples:
- Photo provided by the family of Riley Reeves.
- Photo by staff photographer Jamie Jones.
- Photo by freelance photographer Alex Apple.
political endorsements
An endorsement or disfavor of political candidate or piece of legislation runs afoul of nonprofit 501(c)(3) tax law and is prohibited by staff and freelancers in publication.
Specifically, the IRS prohibits all 501(c)(3) organizations, including nonprofit news organizations, from participating in lobbying on behalf of a candidate or piece of legislation. Lobbying includes activities such as:
- Publishing an organization’s view on a candidate, piece of legislation or nominee.
- Meeting with a candidate or elected official to provide an organization’s opinion on piece of legislation or nominee.
- Urging people to contact their legislators.
- Urging people to vote a specific way on a ballot measure.
- Urging elected officials to support, not support, change or bring new legislation.
Any such action by the organization or as a representative of the organization could potentially risk the organization’s 501(c)(3) status.
The IRS does not prohibit covering legislation, politicians, races for political offices, ballot measures or voter education. All of these are in the purview of voter education and are within the mission of a news organization.
prison
Prison is a generic term applied to penitentiaries and correctional institutions, both state and federal, housing people who have been convicted of or who have pled guilty of felony charges. The term is not interchangeable with jail.
Prisons may be minimum, moderate or maximum security, and may have formal names. They may be privately or publicly run institutions. Follow the AP style guide for names of prisons by capitalizing the formal name of the prison or the accepted alternative name of the prison.
Also see inmate.
product endorsements
An endorsement or disfavor of a specific product or company can all run afoul of nonprofit 501(c)(3) tax codes and is prohibited by staff and freelancers in publication.
Endorsing specific products or companies can be seen as an advertisement, even without money exchanging hands, and can lead to the organization paying taxes because of those statements.
pseudonyms
A pseudonym is a fictitious name. When used by an author or journalism, it is often referred to as a pen name.
EAPM avoids using anonymous sources but understands that there are times when using a pseudonym is in the best interest to protect the safety, health, or life of the source, the reporter and others.
Such cases may include
- Reporting on terrorism/counterterrorism cases and interviewing people from foreign countries who have worked with the U.S. from at great risk to themselves and their families.
- Reporting on transgender children and their families who lives in a community where they do not feel safe or welcome.
- Reporting on immigrants who may feel targeted in a community due currently awaiting an asylum decision.
- Reporting on a person coming forward after domestic violence to tell their story.
- A whistleblower of a major corporation or government agency who is providing documents of wrongdoing.
This is a nonexhaustive list. There are many other situations where a pseudonym may be appropriate, and many where it may not be appropriate.
In such cases, follow the appropriate steps:
- Notify your editor of the case use. Ensure that this is proper use of a pseudonym. Do not reveal the sources real name.
- Secure the appropriate pseudonym (a middle name, a commonly used nickname, etc.) from the source. Do not make up a pseudonym for the source.
- Secure the sources real name off site. Ensure that there is no record in work logs, software, notes, etc. of the sources real name. Ensure that only the source’s pseudonym is used in work chats, conversations, meetings, notes, etc.
For any questions, check with an editor.
public figure
A public figure is a person, business, or organization that has power or influence over society.
The doctrine of public figure was first established in Curtis Publishing v. Butts by extending the concepts surrounding public officials to “public figures.” The term was then somewhat defined in Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.
Public figures were defined as people who “occupy positions of such pervasive power and influence that they are deemed public figures for all purposes,” such as Hollywood celebrities or famous athletes.
An additional category was created for limited-purpose public figures, or those people who “have thrust themselves to the forefront of particular public controversies in order to influence the resolution of the issues involved.”
Finally, businesses and organizations can be considered public figures if it is (1) well known by the public; (2) regulated by the government; and (3) if the business or organization is intensely scrutinized by the media.
public official
A public official is someone who holds a position of authority in government. They may be elected, as in the case of the president, representatives and senators, governors, etc. They may also be appointed, as in the case of cabinet members and the judiciary.
In cases of libel, a public official must show actual malice to prove their case.
Also see New York Times v. Sullivan and public figure.
Q
Q-and-A interview
Q-and-A interviews are a simple story format that consists of an interview as conducted by the journalist and the source. The questions are pre-determined. While the person’s answers may be edited for clarity, the answers are essentially presented untouched. An introduction paragraph is added for information and context.
To conduct an effective Q-and-A interview, research your subject prior to your interview and have your questions ready. You may want to review your questions with your editor or mentor prior to your interview and have follow-up questions in mind.
After the interview, review your recording and transcript. Identify any areas that need clarity and work with your editor. Write your introduction paragraph.
quotes
Do not change quotes, even to correct improper grammar, colloquialisms, misspeaking, poor word usage or profanity. If you, the journalist, have a question, ask the person to clarify or omit the quote. If the quote is too confusing for the reader, listener or viewer even after clarification, paraphrase instead of using the quote.
Use profanity in a quote when there is a necessary or compelling reason but use sparingly.
For how to style a quote in written work, see quotation marks in the punctuation guide.
Quran
The correct and preferred spelling of the Muslim holy recitation. It consists of 114 chapters (surahs). The Quran is written in Arabic. For Muslims, it is considered the word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad over a period of 23 years.
Some older texts, newspapers and some who distinguish translations of the Quran into English or other languages use the spelling Koran. Unless there is a compelling reason or this is in a title or text, EAPM will consistently use Quran to avoid confusion.
R
rape, sexual assault
Rape is a penetration of the vagina or anus, no matter how slight, by a body part or object without consent of the victim, or the oral penetration by a sexual organ, no matter how slight, without consent of the victim. The legal definition of rape may change from state to state, but the overarching idea is that rape is a type of sexual penetration without consent.
Sexual assault is a broader term, but also a legal term. It is broadly defined as sexual behavior or contact that occurs without the consent of the victim. Types of sexual assault may include rape, attempted rape, unwanted touching, forcing a victim to perform sex acts, etc. Again, definitions may vary from state to state.
In cases of sexual assault, including rape, force may be physical, emotional, psychological, coercion, or other forms of manipulation.
Rape and sexual assault should be understood and reported as violence, not sex. Terms such as alleged and claimed can infer that the person who experienced the violence is not telling the truth or is fabricating the story; therefore, such terms should be avoided. See allege, alleged, allegedly.
For more information on laws by state, visit the State Law Generator from RAINN.
recovery
A term for improved physical, social, psychological well-being after an addiction. Can be applied to both recuperating from an illness but is often associated with addiction.
Recovery from addiction looks different for different people and takes many approaches including using detox; therapy; treatment centers; medications; and groups such as AA or NA or alternatives. Many people who have experienced addiction consider recovery a never-ending process and something that may need to be restarted several times throughout their post-addiction period.
For more information, see Reporting on Addiction.
rehab
A generic term for a program or facility that treats a person with a diagnosed condition. Rehab includes outpatient physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, psychology, social work, vocational assistance, and drug treatment. Rehab facilities also include inpatient medical care (such as following a surgery, an illness, a traumatic injury, a stroke, etc.); inpatient physical, occupational, and/or speech therapy; inpatient drug or alcohol treatment; inpatient psychiatric care. They also include skilled nursing facilities (colloquially called nursing homes).
If discussing a rehab program, it is best to be descriptive of the type of care, especially because in popular vernacular and due to references in popular music and movies, the term rehab has been negatively associated with drug treatment facilities.
rest
A noun meaning a state of refreshing ease, period of inactivity after exertion or labor, a refreshing period, or sleep. As a verb it can be used without an object to mean “to refresh oneself, as by sleeping, lying down, or relaxing; or to relieve weariness by cessation of exertion or labor.” To use as a verb with an object, it means “to give a period of refreshment or to lay something in a place of ease or support.” It is not interchangeable with wrest, which means to take away by force.
Also see wrest.
S
SARS
Coming soon
SARS-CoV-2
Coming soon
satire
A literary use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize someone or something to make a political point or statement.
Do not use satire in news writing, unless quoting a source. If quoting a source using satire, make sure to explain the use of satire and include any necessary explanations to make clear the irony or humor.
Satire is allowed in opinion columns, but columns must be clearly marked as satire.
Scouting America, Boy Scouts of America
Note: The Boys Scouts of America will rebrand to Scouting America on the organization’s 115th anniversary, Feb. 8, 2025. Until then, it is appropriate to continue using Boy Scouts of America with a note that the organization is changing its name to reflect that it is now welcoming all youth, not just boys.
Scouting America is headquartered in Irving, Tx. It oversees several types of programs that have local chapters or troops: Cub Scouts for kindergarten through fifth grade; Scouts for ages 11 to 17; Sea Scouts, for ages 14 to 20; Venturing, for ages 14 to 20; and Exploring, for ages 10 to 20.
Use Scouting America on all references when referring to the national organization in Irving, Tx.
Section 230
Section 230 of Title 47 of the U.S. Code outlines “protection for private blocking and screening of offensive material.” It is often called “Section 230” for shorthand.
The law reads: “No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider.”
In 1996, Congress added Section 230 to Title 47, a mirror to a 1950s-era law that protected books sellers from being sued if a book sold within their store contained obscene, lewd, or offensive material. Section 230 protects providers of such spaces such as social media sites, message boards, and other interactive spaces on the internet from being sued if a user posts obscene, lewd, false, defamatory, or other offensive material. In other words, Facebook, Twitter, Reddit, Gabb, etc. are not publishers of the content posted on them, and therefore cannot be held liable for what users post.
On first reference, write Protection for Private Blocking and Screening of Offensive Material (Section 230). On subsequent references, write Section 230.
Also see Title 47.
Seeing Eye Dog
Seeing Eye Dog is a registered trademark for guide dogs for people who are blind or have low vision trained by the nonprofit The Seeing Eye in Morristown, N.J. For dogs not specifically identified with a specific trademarked organization, use a general term such as guide dog, service dog or assistance dog as appropriate.
September 11
On the first reference, use “terrorist attack on Sept. 11, 2001.” On subsequent references, use “September 11,” with the month of September spelled out. Do not use 9/11, as some screen readers may read this like 9-1-1, or Sept. 11, abbreviated like EAPM’s date style.
For related places with proper names such as the National September 11 Memorial and Museum, follow proper name style.
service animal
As defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act, a service animal is a dog individually trained to do a specific task for a person with a disability. While the ADA provides examples of such tasks (guiding a person who is blind, reminding a person to take medication, alerting a person of an impending seizure), a dog can be trained to do any specific task or tasks for a person who is disabled.
Service dogs can be trained by an organization or by an individual. Service dogs are not required to be “registered,” carry documentation or wear an identification vest or tags of any kind but are afforded entry to public spaces under the ADA.
The ADA also includes a narrow provision for service miniature horses.
Some states have broader definitions of service animals than the ADA, but no state may have a narrower definition.
For more information, see the ADA definitions.
service dog
A dog who provides a service or assistance in the broadest term, encompassing all types of guide dogs trained to guide blind and low vision people; hearing dogs trained to help deaf and hard of hearing people; and service dogs trained to perform a specific task or tasks for disabled people.
shoo-in
An idiom for a likely winner of a race or competition, or for a person or thing who has a high chance of being chosen. The term comes from horse racing, but is often used in other situations, such as in politics or in job interviews. Shoo is spelled with two Os, not “oe.”
slander
A type of defamation using speech, gesture, etc. Under the tort laws of defamation, it must cause harm to a person, company, or entity’s reputation.
Also see libel.
slang
An informal style of language used by a particular group or subgroup. Terms are used to convey a specific meaning, attitude, or emotion. It includes words and expressions not necessarily found in standard language, though it may be made from parts of language.
Slang can be regional, generational, or even be used among online communities.
Examples:
- lit
- BFF
- stoked
In news, do not use slang except in quotes, after which provide an explanation of the slang for readers who may not be familiar with it.
Also see colloquialisms, idioms, and jargon.
slurs
As with all news publications, EAPM seeks to limit the use of offensive language (racist, sexist, gender-based, anti-LGBTQ, slurs against a religion, slurs against an ethnicity, etc.).
Do not replace the slur with a euphemism or replace letters in the word with other characters such as asterisks. If the slur or statement is a quote and newsworthy, a discussion must take place with the editorial leadership team about the use of the quote before publication.
special education
A term associated with any type of educational services for people with disabilities used by U.S. public schools and educators under the U.S. Department of Education. The term may carry a negative connotation, but it is an official educational term as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA).
If a service or class is not associated with IDEA and is not specifically deemed special education by the Department of Education, do not use the term special education. Instead, use accessible education or accessible learning.
solutions journalism
A theory of journalism that looks at both the problem and the response to a social issue. The Solutions Journalism Network offers four criteria four reporting solutions journalism:
Focuses on how the response or responses to the problem have or have not worked, and why.
Shows insight, making relevant why the responses to the problem are relevant and accessible to others.
Shows data or qualitative results of the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the responses to the problem.
Reports on the limitations and shortcomings of the responses to the problem, and why it may work well for one community or group, but not for another.
state
A politically unified people occupying a territory (or one of the territories) of a government; the body politic as organized for civil rule and government. In the United States of America, there are 50 states, four of which call themselves commonwealths. Commonwealths are functionally non-distinct from states.
In all cases when used in “state of” or adjective construction, commonwealth and state are lowercase: state of Minnesota, commonwealth of Massachusetts, state of Washington, state Rep. June Jean, state Department of Health, state coffers, etc. (The only exception is the federal department known as the U.S. Department of State, which is uppercase in both first formal reference and following references as State Department.)
substance use disorder
A clinical (medical and psychiatric) diagnosis in the DSM-V. In common language, it is referred to as addiction.
Impaired control over substance use (DSM-5 criteria 1 to 4):
- Consuming the substance in larger amounts and for a longer amount of time than intended.
- Persistent desire to cut down or regulate use. The individual may have unsuccessfully attempted to stop in the past.
- Spending a great deal of time obtaining, using, or recovering from the effects of substance use.
- Experiencing craving, a pressing desire to use the substance.
Social impairment (DSM-5 criteria 5 to 7):
- Substance use impairs ability to fulfill major obligations at work, school, or home.
- Continued use of the substance despite it causing significant social or interpersonal problems.
- Reduction or discontinuation of recreational, social, or occupational activities because of substance use.
Risky use (DSM-5 criteria 8 and 9):
- Recurrent substance use in physically unsafe environments.
- Persistent substance use despite knowledge that it may cause or exacerbate physical or psychological problems.
Pharmacologic (DSM-5 criteria 10 and 11):
- Tolerance: Individual requires increasingly higher doses of the substance to achieve the desired effect, or the usual dose has a reduced effect; individuals may build tolerance to specific symptoms at different rates.
- Withdrawal: A collection of signs and symptoms that occurs when blood and tissue levels of the substance decrease. Individuals are likely to seek the substance to relieve symptoms. No documented withdrawal symptoms from hallucinogens, PCP, or inhalants.
- Note: Individuals can have an SUD with prescription medications, so tolerance and withdrawal (criteria 10 and 11) in the context of appropriate medical treatment do not count as criteria for an SUD.
EAPM will follow the guidelines of Reporting on Addiction and try to avoid stigmatizing language when discussing both the diagnosis of substance use disorder and issues of addiction in general. For more information, see Reporting on Addiction.
supplements, dietary supplements
In the U.S., dietary supplements include vitamins, minerals, botanicals, botanical compounds, herbs, live microbials (probiotics), and amino acids.
They are not regulated as drugs by the FDA for approval before being marketed or sold to the public. The FDA says that although the products are likely intended to treat, cure, or prevent disease and is therefore technically a drug, it is not classified as a drug. Instead, the supplement companies are responsible for ensuring the safety of the products sold to consumers under the 1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act. The FDA does periodically inspect the facilities where the products are made.
Use the term dietary supplement rather than just supplement.
surtitles
Coming soon
T
Tanach
The correct spelling is Tanach, not Tanack.
Often incorrectly referred to as the “Hebrew Bible,” the Tanach is Torah (Chumash or the Five Books of Moses), the Nevi’im (Prophets) and the Ketuvim (Psalms, Lamentations and Proverbs) used by those of Jewish faith.
On first reference, define the term Tanach as the Jewish holy scriptures. After that, use the term Tanach. Do not use the terms “Old Testament” or “Hebrew bible” when referring to Judaism or Jewish faith.
Also see Torah.
telemedicine, telehealth
A healthcare or medical appointment or service offered by video meeting over computer, tablet or smartphone using a video meeting service such as Teledoc or Zoom. The service was significantly restricted in use by payors such as insurance, Medicare and Medicaid prior to the Covid pandemic but became widely used during the pandemic when, under emergency provisions, the regulation expanded available use, especially for Medicare.
this, that, these
As pronouns, vague words used to indicate a person, persons, a thing, or things nearby, just mentioned, about to be mentioned, or proximity. As an adjective, vague words used to indicate being just mentioned, being nearer, being in proximity, being about to be stated, or as a substitute for an indefinite article.
Most often used as a substitute for an indefinite article.
Avoid being vague by either following up this, that, or these with the article to which it refers, or simply replace it with the article to which it refers.
Examples:
Vague: This is closer than the park.
Better: The coffee shop is closer than the park.
Vague: I was looking for this.
Better: I was looking for this book.
Vague: Did she really say that?
Better: Did she really say that you won the grant?
Vague: What are all these?
Better: What are all these index cards?
Title 42
Broadly defined as Public Health and Welfare, this section of the U.S. Federal Code includes the Americans with Disabilities Act in Section 126; the establishment and provisions for NASA in Section 26; the establishment and provision for the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in Section 44; and many other well-known departments and initiatives.
The term “Title 42” is often used as shorthand for the Trump Administration’s use of parts of Title 42 in the early days of the Covid pandemic to begin restricting the flow of migrants across the Mexican border, as well as to detain those who crossed the border. While the term is used as shorthand, it is not an accurate term, and EAPM will not use the term for the Trump Administration detention policies.
When discussing the U.S. national code, it is best to write Public Health and Welfare (Title 42 of the U.S. Code) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (Section126) for clarity if or when the formal code is required.
See U.S. Code for EAPM’s style.
Title 47
This portion of the U.S. Federal Code governs Telecommunications. U.S. Federal Code Title 47, Chapter 5 includes some portions of the Americans with Disabilities Act. This portion includes rules about telecommunications people who may use closed captioning or telephonic relays services for people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. See TDD and TTY.
title (courtesy, royalty, nobility, honorary, academic, military, legislative, work)
Titles before a name are only capitalized when:
- the title is a formal title, a courtesy title, a royal/nobility title, an academic title, a military rank, or a legislative title
- AND used before a person’s name
(Always capitalize at least the first word of any title if it’s the first word in the sentence or at the beginning of a line.)
Example:
- Professor Thurston Green, president of the Royal Society of Canine Breeders at Oxford University, met with King Charles III Thursday for tea.
- Sincerely,
Dr. Lindsey Lewis
Secretary
Society of Podiatry - Today, we remember Sen. Dianne Feinstein and movie star John Wayne.
- Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson is the first Black woman to sit on the bench of the U.S. Supreme Court.
Otherwise, titles are not capitalized.
Example:
Although president of the board Robin Rex was new, they were determined to see change.
Sandra Day O’Connor, a justice for 25 years, was the first female on the U.S. Supreme Court.
Kamala Harris, the U.S. vice president, is the first woman to hold the office.
tone deaf
See amusia and deaf, hard of hearing.
Phrases such as “they are tone-deaf to the situation” or “they are deaf to our needs” are ableist. Please write around it or use alternative language:
- Inconsiderate
- Insensitive
- Rude
- Tactless
- Faux pas
- Obtuse
- Annoying
- Thoughtless
- Careless
- Heartless
- Gauche
- Gaffe
- Unfeeling
- Uncaring
Torah
The word Torah holds dual meaning in the Jewish faith:
The Five Books of Moses of the Tanach, also called the Torah Chumash. The Torah is copied by specialized scribes onto parchment scrolls and is treated with great care and respect by Jewish congregations. It is kept in special cabinets in the sanctuary. The term Torah is sometimes also used to describe the larger body of Jewish law and Scripture.
The Oral Torah, also called the Torah Sheba’al Peh. This is often thought of as an oral tradition or an oral history that is endless. It includes reading of text, debate of additional writings such as the Talmud or the Kabbalah, the stories or lessons from additional works, other teachings and emerging opinions.
Do not substitute terms such as Old Testament or Bible for Torah when discussing Judaism. See also Tanach.
tort law
An area of civil law in the U.S. that deals with wrongful actions an individual or entity, which cause injury to another individual’s or entity’s person, property, or reputation. Tort law includes defamation laws, under which a person or entity can sue for libel or slander.
See defamation, “New York Times Co. v. Sullivan,” and “Hustler Magazine, Inc., v. Fallwell.”
TDD
Stands for Telecommunication Device for the Deaf.
In the U.S., TDD is governed by IV of the Americans with Disabilities Act. All telephone companies are required to provide telecommunication relay services by dialing 711 to reach a telecommunications relay service (TRS), after which an assistant can place a call using the 10-digit number on the caller’s behalf. The caller can then use a TDD to speak to the party on the other end of the call and read the response.
For more information on the laws governing TDD, see the FCC.
TTY
Stands for teletype, which is a text-over-call feature.
In the U.S., TTY is governed by IV of the Americans with Disabilities Act. All telephone companies are required to provide telecommunication relay services by dialing 711 to reach a telecommunications relay service (TRS), after which an assistant can place a call using the 10-digit number on the caller’s behalf. The caller can then use a TTY to type messages to the party on the other end of the call which will be relayed with the help of a relay assistant.
For more information on the laws governing TTY, see the FCC.
TRS
Stands for Telecommunication Relay Service.
In the U.S., TRS is governed by IV of the Americans with Disabilities Act. All telephone companies are required to provide telecommunication relay services by dialing 711 to reach a telecommunications relay assistant, after which an assistant can place a call using the 10-digit number on the caller’s behalf.
For more information on the laws governing TRS, see the FCC.
U
un-
A prefix that changes the meaning of the word to present the opposite of the word. Do not hyphenate after the prefix. Examples:
- un + warranted = unwarranted
- un + witting = unwitting
- un + adorned = unadorned
- un + invited = uninvited
- un + affordable = unaffordable
universal design
A concept of design that promotes usability by the greatest number of people regardless of age, ability or other need without the need for specialized adaptation by the user or specialized design of the building, product or environment.
Universal design is designed to work for the maximum number of people and function for (nearly) anyone. Universal designs are also meant to be flexible and adaptable enough that when additional specialized design (or technologies) are needed, they can be adapted with little effort.
U.S. Code
In legal and other government documents, you may see U.S. laws annotated this way:
- 42 U.S.C. § 15841
- 31 U.S.C. § 5302
- 15 U.S.C. § 1638a
While this is the official way in legal and official matters to notate the U.S. Code, we will use a plain language version. First, let’s translate this means: 42 U.S.C. § 15841.
42 is the Title.
U.S.C, stands for U.S. Code.
§ means Section.
15841 is the Section number.
And the section is titled “Energy Efficient Appliances.”
EAPM would write 42 U.S.C. § 15841 as Energy Efficient Appliances (U.S. Code Title 42, Section 15841). Example:
Under a law simply called Energy Efficient Appliances (U.S. Code Title 42, Section 15841), public housing units are required to have Energy Star appliances unless the purchase is not cost-effective to the agency.
On subsequent references, referring to the law by the section number of the title of the law is fine, whichever is easier for readers to remember.
V
Video description
W
watchdog journalism
A theory of journalism that holds governments and powerful institutions to account through public affairs reporting, fact-checking, and investigative reporting.
weather terminology
In most instances, we will defer to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) definitions of weather-related terminology. The NOAA glossary can be found at Weather.gov.
webVTT, VTT
A plain text file format that displays text synchronized with video and audio. VTT stands for Video Text Track.
See closed captioning.
weaponized accessibility
A term coined by disability activist Erin Michelle Kay, owner of the merchandise shop “Claiming Disability,” and host of the podcast by the same name.
The term refers to when an entity such as a business or city employs accessibility that isn’t accessible, whether for performative purposes, due to lack of understanding, or not working with an accessibility consultant.
“It benefits no one.
It doesn’t benefit people using strollers.
it doesn’t benefit disabled people.
it doesn’t benefit bicyclists.
it’s a performative piece of ‘Accessibility’ that isn’t actually accessible.”
wither, whither
Coming soon
wrest
A verb, used without an object, meaning to twist, turn, pull, jerk, or force by a violent action; to take away by force; to get by effort; to twist or turn from the proper course; to wrench. Sometimes used as a noun, it means a twist. It is also a small key for a musical instrument. It is not interchangeable with rest.
Also see rest.
X
Xanax
Trade name for alprazolam, a Schedule IV benzodiazepine anti-anxiolytic made by Pfizer. It is a fast-acting benzodiazepine.
Do not refer to the generic by the trade name. Note that the street drug, xannie, xanny, zanny, X, or Z is often fake alprazolam or alprazolam mixed with other drugs and should never be referred to as Xanax despite the play on the trade name.
xenophobia
Prejudice, fear or hatred of outsiders. Although called a “phobia,” this is not actually a medical or psychiatric diagnosis. Rather, xenophobia is a sociological issue. It can overlap with racism or other forms of hatred and oppression. It can be implicit or explicit, and can be expressed in personal, systemic, economic, violent, and rhetorical ways.
Xenophobia is often thought of as a dislike or fear of immigrants, but it can also be a fear or dislike of someone from a different community or culture (often termed “cultural xenophobia”).
xer-, xero-
Prefix meaning “dry.”
Y
yellow journalism
A term first used in the late 1800s to describe sensational and salacious news, especially that which may be used to inflame public opinion, which relies heavily on anonymous sourcing, which prioritizes scooping competition over factual reporting, and involves unethical journalistic practices. In contemporary journalism, the term may be more synonymous with tabloid journalism or used as a euphemism for “poor reporting.”
The term originated around two New York newspapers in the 1880s: the New York Journal published by William Randolf Hearst and the New York World published by Joseph Pulitzer.
YMCA
The national organization is called YMCA of the USA on first reference. It is headquartered in Chicago, Ill. On subsequent references, use YMCA.
Be aware how local YMCA locations are named, such as Melrose Family YMCA, Wang YMCA of China Town, Greenpoint Branch YMCA, John R. Grubb Community YMCA, YMCA of the Prairie, etc.
Note: The 92nd Street Y in New York, N.Y., is not affiliated with YMCA of the USA.
YWCA
The national organization is called YWCA USA on first reference. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C. On subsequent references, use YWCA.
Be aware of that local YWCA organizations are named using YWCA followed by the location name. For example: YWCA Madison, YWCA Alaska, YWCA Boulder County, etc.
Note: For the local YWCA in Boston, Mass., organization, which is considered the birthplace of YWCA, use YWCA Boston in first reference, then YW Boston in subsequent references.
Z
Zen, Chan, Son, Thein, Zen Buddhism
A limitless disciplined practice to examine the joy of being. It is a school of Buddhism practiced throughout the world, originating in China during the Tang Dynasty. The practice uses meditation and mind observation, rituals and arts such as tea ceremonies, calligraphy, poetry, brush painting, gardening, etc., to practice boundless examination of the mind, reality, and the moment.
Refrain from using the word zen as an adverb or adjective to describe style or place. For example, “Her style is very zen.”
zipper pull
A piece of adaptive dressing equipment. A device that attaches to the zipper head that aids in the opening and closure of zippers for people with limited hand or finger mobility.
Punctuation
apostrophe
Add an apostrophe-s to:
- singular common nouns not ending in s (even if they end in an s sound such as ce, x, and z)
- singular common nouns ending in s (unless the next word begins with an s)
- plural common nouns not ending in s
- compound words – add the ‘s to the word closest to the object possessed, example: the surgeon general’s press release, the attorney general’s case
- joint possession – add the ‘s after the word or name if ownership is joint, example: Jamie and Alex’s bookstore
- individual possession – add the ‘s after both words or names if ownership is individual (example: Jamie’s and Alex’s books)
- double possessives – the word after of takes an ‘s when 1. the word after of is an animate object and 2. the word before of is only a portion of the object’s possessions. Example: a friend of Jamie’s or a sibling of Alex’s
- for plurals of a single letter, example: every reporter knows the five W’s and one H or she got all A’s on her report card.
Add only an apostrophe, no s, to:
- singular common nouns ending in an s when the next word begins with an s
- singular proper names ending in an s
- plural nouns ending in an s
- nouns plural in form and singular in meaning, example: mathematics’ rules, measles’ effects
- to replace omitted letters, example: rock ‘n’ roll, ’tis the season, ne’er-do-well, etc.
- in a contraction, example: I’ve, you’re, it’s, don’t, etc.
- in omitted figures, example: class of ’98, the Roaring ’20s
Special rules:
- Nouns the same in singular and plural form such as corps, moose, deer, fish, etc., follow are treated by plural rules: one corps’ location, two moose’s tracks, five deer’s antlers, one fish’s fin.
- St. James’s Palace always gets an ‘s.
- The phrases appearance’ sake, conscience’ sake and goodness’ sake all use only an apostrophe (‘), no s, but other special expressions generally use ‘s.
- Personal interrogative and relative pronouns do not use an apostrophe: mine, ours, your, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose.
- Some governmental, corporate and organizational names use an apostrophe in their names and some do not. Follow their practice in how they use the apostrophe in their name, example: Ladies’ Home Journal, National Governors Association, Actors’ Equity, etc.
brackets
Generally, we do not use bracket marks. In some cases, an editor may grant an exception.
bullet
Bullets are used to offset items on a list. They are made using either a set of key commands or key combinations. A space goes after the bullet.
On a Mac-based system: ALT+8
On a Windows-based system: ALT+0149
In HTML: •
In unicode: U+2022
Senator Booker said the bill didn’t pass for the following reasons:
- lack of support from centrists
- bipartisan ranker and gridlock
- several last-minute amendments
colon
The colon has three punctuation purposes: to set off lists, to set off a clause with emphasis and for use in dialogues/Q and As. Additionally, it is used with time and biblical and legal citations.
Lists
A colon can set off a list within a sentence or a bullet-pointed list. In either case, the first word of each item of the list is not capitalized unless it is a proper noun or a complete sentence. Follow the rules of lists per commas and semi-colons.
Emphasis
A colon can set off a clause for emphasis.
Examples:
- They had one dream: to have a dog.
- I promise you this: we will succeed.
- She had one goal: winning.
Dialogue
When used in dialogue or Q and As, place the speaker’s name followed by the colon.
comma
Serial commas (Oxford comma): In a series with more than two items, use commas to separate the items of a series including before the final conjunction. This helps create clarity.
Example: The bill would cut funding to SNAP, Medicaid, and CHiP.
With adjectives: Use a comma to separate adjectives equal in rank. Do not use a comma between the final adjective and the noun it is modifying. Also see: The Associated Press Stylebook
Example: A bright, talented, enthusiastic child
Non-essential clauses: Use a comma to set off non-essential clauses and phrases. Example:
Use a comma to set off introductory phrases. (It improves comprehension. NOTE: The AP Styleguide approves omission; we do not.)
Example: During the G-7 Summit, protesters blocked streets.
Clauses with clear subjects: Use a comma if the subject of each clause is expressly stated.
Example: The President is currently visiting Japan, and the Vice-President is visiting France.
ellipsis
Use an ellipsis to condense quotes, texts or documents (ensuring not to change the meaning of the quote, text or document). Set off with spaces on both sides of the ellipsis. Never use an ellipsis at the beginning or end of a quotation. However, it can be used at the beginning or end of a paragraph.
Examples:
Without:
“We were working on several bills at the time none of which passed,” Jones said.
With:
“We were working on several bills … none of which passed,” Jones said.
Without:
“It has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base,” Nixon said.
With:
“It has become evident … I no longer have a strong enough political base,” Nixon said.
Without:
The book, “Investigative Reporting,” by Clark R. Mellenhoff, describes his own experiences as a reporter, using it as a guide, he says to demonstrate to students and young journalists the anyone can be a “competent” investigative reporter. He says it takes hard work, often describing long hours and learning to play the politics of Washington.
With: The book, “Investigative Reporting,” by Clark R. Mellenhoff, describes his own experiences … to demonstrate to students and young journalists the anyone can be a “competent” investigative reporter. …
em-dash
Use the em-dash:
- between the dateline and the start of the first paragraph, surrounded by spaces
- before attribution to a quote in a pull quote
- to indicate an interruption
Examples:
- RAPIDS CITY, IL — Three people sat in a silent protest outside city hall Tuesday.
- SEATTLE — A new coffee business dedicated to disabled justice opened Thursday in the famed Public Market.
- “We need to make every single thing accessible to every single person with a disability.” ― Stevie Wonder, musician
- “I’m going to lower —” the president began to say as protesters interrupted his speech.
How to create an em-dash:
On an Apple operating system: Shift+Option with the minus/hyphen.
On a Windows operating system: Ctrl+Alt with the minus/hyphen OR use the key command Alt and 0151.
en-dash
Use the en-dash, surrounded by spaces:
- when a phrase within a sentence that would otherwise be set off by commas contains commas
- between times or scores in sidebars, headlines, etc.
Examples:
- This is the third time the bill was voted down – I think.
- I’m going to buy a house next year – if I save enough money.
- There were hundreds of people gathered – several groups including Disability Rights Atlanta, Long Covid Now and Georgia for Disability had put out the call – to hold a silent protest.
- 5 – 7 p.m.
How to create an en-dash:
On an Apple operating system: Option with the minus/hyphen
On a Windows operating system: Ctrl with the minus/hyphen OR use the key command Alt and 0150
exclamation point
Only used in columns or op/ed pieces, with discretion. If used in a quote, it is placed inside the quotation marks and never followed by a comma.
Examples:
- We demand the ADA be updated so that it finally conveys our full rights as disabled people who live in this society!
- “We are equal citizens under the law!” Jones told me at the protest.
To convey emphatic expressions or quotations in news pieces, describe the emphasis following the quote instead of using an exclamation point.
Examples:
- “We are equal citizens under the law,” Jones exclaimed, pounding his fist on the arm of his wheelchair.
- “This poor treatment of children with IEPs simply cannot stand,” shouted teacher Shirley Doe at the contentious school board meeting Tuesday.
hyphen
A hyphen is used in:
- compound modifiers (two or more words that express a single concept) preceding a noun
- compound adjectives
- to avoid duplicated vowels or tripled consonants, such as anti-intellectual
- when large numbers are spelled out, such as twenty-two or one hundred and fifty-three
- in suspensive hyphenation; for example: “It’s a 10- to 15-month plan.”
- to join words to avoid ambiguity; for example: “The president will speak with small-business owners.” While small and business would not normally be hyphenated, small and business are hyphenated in this instance so that we know small is modifying business and not modifying owners.
- the instances of most prefixes when the prefix ends in the same vowel with which the adjoining word begins
- to join doubled prefixes: sub-subparagraph
- to join a prefix to a capitalized word
parentheses
Use sparingly and try to write around using them.
Use parentheses if a state name or similar information is inserted into a proper name where it is otherwise not normally found, for example: The Monroe (Mich.) News or the Bloomington (Ind.) Herald-Times.
Use within a direct quotation to insert or identify sensitive information, such as a subject only identified by the speaker by a pronoun in the quote.
Example:
Without: “She said he was at risk of losing the Speaker’s gavel,” Jones said.
With: “(Michaels) said (Johnson) was at risk of losing the Speaker’s gavel,” Jones said.
Best: Jones said Michaels recently said Johnson is “at risk of losing the Speaker’s gavel.”
period
Periods end declarative statements, mildly declarative statements, rhetorical statements and indirect questions.
A period is used to set off an enumeration using either letters or numbers, for example, A. Clean the house; B. Walk the dog; C. Mow the lawn. or 1. Clean the house; 2. Walk the dog; 3. Mow the lawn.
A period is used after an initial, e.g., John F. Kennedy, T.S. Elliot, Lindon B. Johnson.
When a direct quote begins with attribution, the quote closes with a period inside the quotation mark, for example, Sen. James said, “We will pass the bill.”
For the use with abbreviations, see abbreviations.
question mark
Use a question mark at the end of a direct question, an interpolated question, at the end of a full sentence in a list of questions, and at the end of the question in a Q&A.
Examples:
- Did you hear me?
- I said – did you hear me? – start at the beginning.
- Who asked that?
- What is the bill about?
- Who benefits?
- How much will it cost?
- Q: How long have you been interested in painting?
A: Since I was a child.
Do not use a question mark with an indirect question.
Examples:
- He asked, did you hear me.
- I asked, will you start at the beginning.
- They want to know what the cause of the pandemic is.
When quoting a question, the quotation mark supersedes the comma for attribution. If starting out with attribution, the question mark is still within the quotation mark, but a comma sets off the quote.
Examples:
- The senator asked, “Will we ever pass the budget?”
- “Will we ever pass the budget?” the senator asked.
quotation marks
Also see: Quote attribution
Direct quotes:
Surround direct quotes with quotation marks. If the quote is broken into more than one paragraph typographically (a running quotation), do not use close quotation marks at the end of the paragraph but do use open quotation marks at the start of the next paragraph. If you quote two or more people in dialogue, their statements, no matter how brief, are surrounded in quotation marks of each person’s statement.
Partial quotes:
Partial quotes or quote fragments are surrounded by open and closed quotation marks.
Quotation marks within a quote:
To use quotation marks within a quote, use single open and close quotation marks. For example, “At the program, we’ll be singing an aria from ‘Madam Butterfly,’ and we will also sing a verse from ‘America the Beautiful.'” Note that the comma after “Madam Butterfly” and period after “America the Beautiful” are both placed within the single quotation marks.
Irony:
Words used in irony are surrounded by quotation marks. Also see irony and satire
Composition titles:
Put quotation marks around articles and books, computer game titles, movie titles, opera titles, play titles, poems, radio and television program titles, and the titles of lectures, speeches and works of art.
Do NOT put quotation marks around books of reference or religious works such as the Bible, the Quran, the Torah, Webster’s English Dictionary, the AP Style Guide, World Book Encyclopaedia, The Old Farmer’s Almanac, Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. Similarly, software operating systems and software systems also are NOT offset by quotation marks: Windows, Bitrix24, Slack, Google Voice.
Q-and-A format:
Quotation marks are NOT used in Q-and-A format writing.
semi-colon
A semi-colon has two uses.
A semi-colon is used to separate items of a list when the items of the list contain multiple factors within them.
Example:
- Democrats in Congress are working on a new bill to reduce use of coal, natural gas and oil; to increase use of wind energy, solar energy and other renewable energy; and to fund research into new energy storage technology.
- A semi-colon is also used to connect two complete sentences that are closely related in thought. In this case, the semi-colon replaces the comma in what would be a run-on sentence but connects two sentences where a period would create too much separation of thought.
Example:
- Democrats in Congress are working on a new renewable energy bill; Republicans say they will oppose the bill unless it also makes room for nuclear technology.
Note: In when lists are made as a “bullet list,” use semi-colons after each item of a list and a period after the final item if it closes the list “sentence.” Don’t use a period after the final item if the sentence continues after the list. Example:
The birthday party items include:
- balloons;
- kazoos;
- cake;
and each child will also take home a small bag with surprise party favors.
Additional resources
- Center for Disability Rights
- National Center for Disability and Journalism
- ADA National Network
- National Association of Black Journalists
- Asian American Journalist’s Association
- The National Hispanic Association of Journalists
- GLAAD
- The Association of LGBTQ Journalists
- The Trans Journalists Association
- National Eating Disorder Foundation
- Reporting Addiction
- DART Center for Trauma-informed Journalism
- The Marshall Project
- PJP – Language Around Incarceration
- Religion News Association Religion Stylebook
- Accessible Social – A Guide to Social Media
- Guide to Investigating Disability
- Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
- Center for Disability Rights
- The Data Journalism Handbook 1
- The Data Journalism Handbook 2
- RC’s Open Government Guide
- RC’s FOIA Wiki
- A Practical Guide To Designing For Colorblind People
- The Marshall Project – The Language Project
Made with love by the EAPM Editorial Department.
Last updated: 12/31/2024